Marco Polo visited India and China. The Journey of Marco Polo

An Italian merchant and traveler who presented the story of his travels through Asia in the famous “Book of the Diversity of the World.”

Despite doubts about the reliability of the facts presented in this book, expressed from the moment of its appearance to the present time, it serves as a valuable source on the geography, ethnography, history of Armenia, Iran, China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and other countries in the Middle Ages . This book had a significant influence on sailors, cartographers, and writers of the 14th-16th centuries. In particular, she was on the ship of Christopher Columbus during his search for a route to India; According to researchers, Columbus made 70 marks on it.

Marco Polo was born around 1254 in Venice or on the island of Korcula (the territory of modern Croatia). Polo's ancestors came to Venice from Dalmatia and were never among the noble Venetian merchant families. When Marco was six years old, his father Niccolo and uncle Maffeo set off on a nine-year journey to the East. During this time, the boy's mother died, and he was raised by his paternal aunt. Marco received a quite passable education for that time - he read the Bible and some ancient authors, and knew how to count and write. And he spent his free time on the Venetian canals or in the port, where merchant ships loaded with goods arrived and departed to all corners of the world.

Marco was 15 years old when his father Nicolo and uncle Mateo, rich merchants, returned to Venice from a long and distant journey. This was in 1269. They visited the Crimea, the Middle Volga, Samarkand and Bukhara, and Mongolia. According to them, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Danube to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Even China was under the rule of the Mongol Khan Kublai Khan.

Khan hospitably received the Polo brothers and, when they were preparing to return, instructed them to deliver a letter to the Pope, in which he expressed his readiness to establish diplomatic relations.

Only two years later (1271) the Polo brothers received a response letter from the pope and gifts for Kublai Khan. This time Nicolo took his 17-year-old son Marco with him. Thus began the famous 24-year journey of Marco Polo. The journey to China was long, it took about 4 years (1271-1275).

The first Chinese city to which the Polo family reached in 1275 was Shazha (modern Dunhuang). That same year they reached Kublai Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern Gansu province of China). According to Marco Polo, the khan admired him, gave him various instructions, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even kept him governor of the city of Yangzhou for three years (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the khan's army and taught him to use catapults in the siege of fortresses.

In the spring of 1292, a fleet of fourteen four-masted ships sailed from the port of Zaitun (Quanzhou). While traveling around the eastern and southern coasts of Asia, Marco Polo learned about Japan, the islands of Indonesia (“the labyrinth of 7448 islands”), and the country of Chambo on the eastern coast of Indochina. From the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean, the ships passed through the Strait of Malacca and made a three-month stop on the shores of the island of Sumatra. After stopping in Ceylon and sailing along the western coast of India, the ships entered the Persian Gulf and anchored in Hormuz, where the Polos had visited 22 years earlier. While sailing across the Indian Ocean, Marco Polo managed to obtain some information about the African coast, Ethiopia, and the islands of Madagascar, Zanzibar and Socotra. Having delivered the princesses to Persia, the Polo family returned to Venice in 1295. All of Venice was amazed to learn how much wealth - precious stones - the three travelers brought from the East.

Soon a war broke out between Venice and Genoa for supremacy in trade in the Mediterranean. Marco Polo equipped the ship at his own expense and took part in the battle himself. Together with his team, he was captured and imprisoned in a Genoese prison. There, Marco Polo told prisoners about his travels to distant countries. One of the captives, the Italian writer Rusticiano, wrote down the Venetian’s stories about everything he saw and heard during his interesting and long journey.

Some time later, Marco Polo was released from prison, returned to Venice and continued writing about his travels. He died in 1324 as a noble, respected man. His book interested his contemporaries. At first it circulated in many handwritten lists. It was first published in 1477 and then translated into many languages. This book introduced Europeans to the distant countries of the East, their nature, inhabitants, and culture. True, not everything in it was reliable. But the huge amount of valuable information about the East that Marco Polo collected during his travels made this work a favorite book of such outstanding navigators as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan. Marco Polo's book played an important role in the discovery of America and the sea route to India.

"The Book of Wonders of the World"

Also known as “The Travels of Marco Polo”, “The Book of the Diversity of the World”, “The Book of Marco Polo” (old French: Livres des merveilles du monde).

Despite doubts about the reliability of the facts presented in this book, expressed from the moment of its appearance to the present time, it serves as a valuable source on geography, ethnography, and the history of different peoples of the world.

A description of Marco Polo's travels across Asia and Africa, made between 1276 and 1291, which were written down from his words in Old French by Rustichelli da Pisa, who was with him in a Genoese prison.

“Journeys” consists of four parts. The first describes the territories of the Middle East and Central Asia that Marco Polo visited on his way to China. The second describes China and the court of Kublai Khan. The third part talks about coastal countries: Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and the east coast of Africa. The fourth describes some of the wars between the Mongols and their northern neighbors.

Descriptions of Marco Polo are full of inaccuracies. This applies to the names of individual cities and provinces, their relative locations, as well as descriptions of objects in these cities. A famous example is the description of the bridge near Beijing (now named after Marco Polo), which actually has half as many arches as described in the book.

Marco Polo visited

And Armenia

According to Marco Polo, Armenia was divided into Greater (most of modern Armenia) and Lesser (most likely he meant Cilicia).

“This is a great country. It begins in a city called Arzinga (Erzincan), where the best fabrics and linens in the world are woven. It also has the best natural spring baths found throughout the city. The people of the country are Armenians. There are many cities and villages in the country, but the significant city is Arzinga, where the Archbishop's Seat, Arziron (Erzrum) and Arzizi (Arzhish) are located. Passing from Trebizond to Tauris, there is one castle - Paipurt (Baiburt), it stands on a hill of the peninsula and here you can see silver mines,” the traveler wrote.

Marco Polo was perhaps the first European to reveal to the West the indescribable and majestic beauty of the biblical Mount Ararat. He described everything in his notes. Marco Polo wanted to convey the important fact that it was in Armenia, on the top of the Holy Mountain, that Noah’s Ark was located.

Russia

Russia is a large country in the north. Christians of the Greek confession live here. There are many kings and its own language; the people are simple-minded and very beautiful; men and women are white and blond. There are many difficult passes and fortresses on the border. They pay no tribute to anyone, only a little to the king of the West; and he is a Tatar and is called Taktaktai, they pay tribute to him, and to no one else. This is not a trading country, but they have a lot of expensive furs of high value; they have sables, and ermines, and squirrels, and ercolines, and many glorious foxes, the best in the world. They have a lot of silver ores; They mine a lot of silver.

There is nothing else to talk about here, and therefore we will go from Russia and tell you about the Great Sea that is around these regions, and the inhabitants there, starting first of all with Constantinople.

But I’ll tell you first of all about the region to the north and northwest. In this country, I’ll tell you, there is a region called Lac, it borders on Russia, there is a king, and the inhabitants are Christians and Saracens. There are a lot of good furs here; merchants take them in different directions. Residents are engaged in trade and crafts. There’s nothing else to talk about here, so let’s go from here and talk about something else.

I want to say something about Russia that I forgot. Know, in truth, the most severe cold in the world is in Russia; it's hard to hide from him. The country is large, right up to the sea-ocean; on this sea they have several islands where gyrfalcons and pilgrim falcons live, all of which is exported to different countries of the world. From Russia, I’ll tell you, the way to Norway is not long, and if it weren’t for the cold, you could get there soon, but because of the great cold it’s not easy to go there.

To China

In 1260, Nicolo (Marco's father), and his brother Maffeo, undertook a trading expedition to East Asia. Marco was also among the travelers. The route ran from Venice (Northern Italy) to the Palestinian Akka, then to the port of Ayas on the southern coast of Asia. The merchants crossed the Armenian Highlands and descended the Tigris to the port of Basra. The goal of this enterprise was to reach the shores of China by sea. But fearing the difficulties of sea travel and not trusting unreliable (according to the merchants) ships, they abandoned the sea route and continued their journey to China by land.

Marco Polo lived in China for about 15 years as a trader. While serving under Khan, Marco crossed Eastern China many times. From the traveler's stories, only two routes can be known with certainty. The first route follows the coastline south to the cities of Quinsay and Zeitoun. The second route leads to eastern Tibet, Yunnan and further to northern Indochina.

Kazakhstan

In the history of the penetration of information about the Kazakh land into Europe, the name of the Venetian Marco Polo, “the greatest traveler of all times and peoples,” as the Russian scientist, explorer of Asia I. Mushketov rightfully called him, cannot be mentioned. The paths of the Polo brothers crossed both the territory of Central Asia and the Kazakh land (Otrar, the Syr Darya and Ili valleys).

The six chapters of Marco Polo's book detail the disagreements and struggles between certain courageous men named Alau and Berke. The name Alau-batyr is found in folklore works published by V.V. Radlov in his work “Samples of Folk Literature of Northern Turkic Tribes” and in “Song of Forty Crimean Heroes” (“Tsyrymnyts ktryk, batyrs turaly zhyr”).

Mongolia

Marco Polo served for 17 years at the court of the Mongol Khan Kublai Khan, who founded the Yuan Empire. Carrying out orders from the emperor, he traveled through almost all the provinces of today's China. The subsequently written book “On the Diversity of the World” became a real treasure of medieval literature. It tells in detail about the life, way of life, traditions, history and culture of the Mongols of the 14th century.

In 1292, the khan released three travelers with rich gifts; They went to the ocean and through Cochin China, Sumatra, Ceylon, Trebizond and Constantinople returned to Venice in 1295.

In Venice, Marco Polo, thanks to his wealth, achieved a high position and received the nickname Masser Millioni.

And India

The trip to India was the last of Marco Polo's great missions. His book says this: “Marco returned from India, across many seas, and told a lot about that country.”

In the book of Marco Polo there is a mention of the city of Mian. It is believed that Myan is Pagan on the Irrawaddy River. Accordingly, Myan Marco Polo is Burma.
In the book of Marco Polo it is said that the city of Mian is “large, noble, the most important in the kingdom; the people here are idolaters, they speak in a special language, in their own language, and are subservient to the great khan.”

And Indonesia

It is believed that the explorer Marco Polo (1254-1324) was the first European to visit the Indonesian archipelago. He supposedly wandered there by accident, while searching for various spices, which were extremely highly valued at that time.

In his introduction, Marco describes Indonesia as eight kingdoms, six of which he visited, “namely... the kingdoms of Ferlek, Basman, Sumatra, Dagroyan, Lambri and Fansur.” Perhaps the most primitive of them was Basman, whose inhabitants “have no law, like animals.” He notes: “The Great Khan considers them his subjects, but they do not pay him tribute because they are so far away that the Great Khan’s people do not get here.”

Museum of Marco Polo

The Marco Polo House Museum is located in Korcula, Croatia.

The Marco Polo Museum is located very close to St. Mark's Cathedral in one of the old houses where, according to one version, he was born. Nobody really knows if this is true.

At the entrance to the museum you will be greeted by a wax figure of Marco Polo himself, dressed in a costume similar to what merchants and travelers wore then. A wide stone staircase leads into the building, leading up to a narrow door made of planks. Here are scenes from the life of the young Marco Polo in Korcula, his travels through the Egyptian sands and China, the scene of his meeting with Kublai Khan in Mongolia, as well as scenes from Marco Polo's imprisonment - it was there that he began to describe his travels.

Marco Polo (TV series)

American historical television series telling the story of the journey of the legendary Venetian merchant Marco Polo. The main roles were played by Lorenzo Riquelmi (Marco Polo) and Benedict Wong (Khubilai Khan). Since December 12, 2014.

Plot of the film

1273 The young Venetian Marco Polo, along with his father, as part of a group of European merchants, arrives in China, which is under Mongol rule, and ends up at the court of the ruler, Kublai Khan. Marco's father offers the khan to give his son into his service in exchange for the right to trade on the Silk Road. Marco learns local traditions and culture, becomes close to the khan and inevitably becomes involved in political intrigues at court.

Source – Internet

Marco Polo – Italian merchant and traveler, author of the book “The Book of the Diversity of the World” updated: September 17, 2017 by: website

Good day! Continuing the theme of great travelers and explorations, I decided to talk about Marco Polo. He had a fairly colorful life, full of adventures, but they considered him an eccentric and did not believe his stories. This was the case with many great people who were recognized only after death, and this was also the case with Marco...

Biography of Marco Polo.

(1254 – 1324) the most famous European traveler of the Middle Ages who visited the countries of the East. He was born into the family of a wealthy Venetian merchant Niccolo Polo.

Venice in those days was the center of trade between West and East. Venetian merchants often traveled to Crimea and Constantinople, where they had trading posts.

His father Niccolò and uncle Matteo traveled to Beijing from Constantinople in 1260. Beijing at that time was the capital of Kublai Khan, the grandson of the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan.

Their journey lasted 9 years, after which they both returned to Venice. Kublai asked them to return to China and bring with them several priests, since the Khan had the intention of introducing Christianity in China.

Marco's father and uncle again went on a long journey to Voskhod in 1271, and took Marco, who was 17 years old at that time, with them. Their expedition reached Beijing around 1275, by land route (through Asia Minor, Kurdistan, Iran, Afghanistan, the Pamirs and the Yellow River Valley) and was friendly received by Kublai Khan.

The Great Khan often brought talented foreigners closer to his court, and hired Marco Polo into the civil service. Marco soon became a member of the privy council, and the emperor entrusted him with several secret tasks.

One of his assignments was to compile a report on the situation in Burma and Yuanan after their conquest by the Mongols in 1287, and another assignment was to purchase a “tooth of the Buddha” in Sri Lanka. Marco soon became prefect of Yangzhou, an important city on the Grand Canal.

Marco Polo built a brilliant career, he studied China very well during his 15 years of service, and also collected a lot of information about Japan and India.

He managed to leave China only in 1292, at which time he was assigned to accompany the Chinese and Mongol princesses to Persia, where they were to marry the Ilkhan (Mongol governor) and his heir.

Marco reached Persia by sea, and there he received the news that Kublai Kublai had died. This freed him from the obligation to return to China. And he, taking advantage of the moment, went to Venice around 1924, arriving there in 1295.

The Venetian Republic was at war with the Genoese Republic at that time. The following year, after returning to Venice, he found himself aboard a Venetian merchant ship that was captured by Genoese corsairs in the eastern Mediterranean.

From 1296 to 1299 he was in a Genoese prison, in which he dictated his famous "The Book of Marco Polo" to some Rustichello. This book described the mainland, China, as well as many islands from Japan to Zanzibar.

Marco was released from prison in 1299, and lived the rest of his life in Venice. He died in 1324.

In the eyes of his fellow citizens, Marco remained an eccentric; no one believed his stories, and he was given the nickname Marco Millione. The ashes of Marco Polo rest in the Church of San Lorenzo, but the exact burial place is unknown.

Marco Polo walked many thousands of kilometers, saw many countries, cultures, people, but still returned and decided to live the rest of his life in his hometown. This once again confirms that there is nothing sweeter than home 🙂 Despite the fact that people did not believe him, he still made his contribution to the physical geography of Asia and the surrounding islands. Thank you Marco!

Historical reference

Marco Polo was born on September 15, 1254 in the large Italian trading city of Venice. He came from a merchant family, which partly determined his future fate. Medieval trade was based on trips to other countries for valuable goods, which can partly be considered travel. Father Marco, returning in 1269 from Mongolia, Crimea and the lands of modern Uzbekistan, spoke about large and little-explored countries that are rich in strange goods. The commercial orientation became the basis of a new campaign that lasted 24 years, on which young Marco Polo set out in 1271.

Life in China, where the merchants arrived in 1275, was successful, except for the excessive guardianship of Kublai Khan over them. According to historians, the older Polo brothers were good advisers on the technical re-equipment of the Chinese army. Marco was also quite smart, and the khan entrusted him with diplomatic work. With instructions from Kublai Kublai, Marco Polo traveled almost all of China, becoming acquainted with the history of the country and its culture. Foreigners were probably beneficial to the khan, so until 1292 they lived as if in a golden cage.

Only chance helped them leave China. To escort princesses to Persia, who were given as wives to the ruler of this country, the khan needed especially trusted persons. There were no better candidates than the Polo brothers. The travelers decided to go by sea: by land it was quite dangerous due to the strife between the princes within the country. The sea voyage ended successfully both for the future wives in the harem of the Persian ruler, and for Marco Polo, the traveler and writer. The road home did not only pass through Persia, where the fleet with the royals was actually heading. Along the way, Marco Polo described the new lands he saw. Sumatra, Ceylon, Madagascar, Malaysia and a number of other islands, the African coast, India and many other lands were included in the stories of Marco Polo.

Significance for modern times

Arriving home, Marco Polo was imprisoned as a participant in the civil war, but was soon released. Death overtook him in 1324, when he was known and respected for the book he wrote and the stories of his own adventures. Despite many inaccuracies in his narrative, it was from the pages of the initially handwritten (and from 1477 printed) edition that Europeans first learned about Japan, Indonesia, and Indochina. Today, this campaign of Marco Polo, his story about what he saw, makes it possible to spend a vacation in Bali, travel to Sumatra, Java, Borneo and many other islands. These places are loved by many lovers of beach holidays, diving, and surfing. The nature of the region is untouched by civilization, and fans of ecotourism will appreciate the pristine flora of the Indonesian islands.

The description of Chipingu Island opened up Japan to readers, and modern tourists the opportunity to visit this island country. Although this island is one of the 3922 that make up Japan, the information received about it then has turned into a powerful tourism industry today, offering tours to the most technologically advanced state in the world. Traveling in the spring, during the cherry blossom period, is most popular among Russian tourists. Also favorite places for vacationers in Japan are thermal springs and various natural parks. And, of course, the culture that is unusual for Europeans attracts people.

Despite the fame of China at the time of Polo, his popularization of this country, and the abundance of information received during his 17 years in China attracted many Europeans to these places. Today, tours to China are becoming increasingly popular, and the Chinese themselves, as a sign of gratitude to Marco Polo for his achievements in the development of their country, erected a monument to him.

Conclusion

Christopher Columbus used The Diversity of the World as an authoritative reference in his search for India. Despite the apparent fame of Columbus's biography, many facts from his fate will be of interest to readers.

Marco Polo (1254─1324) - famous Italian merchant and traveler, author of the famous “Book of the Diversity of the World,” in which he spoke in detail about his travels through Asian countries. Despite the fact that for many centuries doubts have been expressed about the truth of the facts cited, this work continues to be an important source on the history, geography, and ethnography of many medieval Asian states and peoples. The work of Marco Polo had a huge influence on future travelers and discoverers. It is known that the book was actively used by H. Columbus during his voyage to America.

Marco Polo was the first among Europeans to decide on such a long and risky journey into a world unknown to him. The right to be called the traveler's homeland is disputed by Poland and Croatia. Representatives of the first state claim that the surname Polo comes from the abbreviated name of the Pole nationality. The Croats claim that the roots of the Italian clan are on the territory of their state in Dolmatia.

Childhood and youth

Marco Polo was born in Venice on September 15, 1254 into a noble family. His mother died during childbirth, so the upbringing of the future traveler was taken over by his own aunt and father Nicolo, who, like many residents of a large trading city, was engaged in the sale of spices and jewelry. Due to his profession, he traveled a lot around the world, visiting Central Asia, Mongolia and the Crimea. In 1260, together with his brother Matthew, they came to Sudak, after which they proceeded to Bukhara and further to Beijing, where the Mongols then ruled.

The older relatives returned to Venice in 1269 and enthusiastically talked about their travels. They managed to reach the court of Kublai Khan, where they were received with great honor and were even given Mongol titles. Before leaving, the khan asked the Venetians to contact the Pope so that he would send him scientists who mastered the mastery of the seven arts. However, upon arrival at home, it became clear that the previous head of the Catholic Church, Clement IV, had died, and a new one had not yet been elected.

It is not known for certain whether Marco received any education, but during his travels he managed to learn several languages. In his book, Polo indirectly confirms his literacy by writing “he wrote a few notes in his notebook.” In one of the chapters, he notes that he tried to be more attentive to all the events taking place in order to record in more detail everything new and unusual.

Travel to Asia

Only in 1271 a new Pope was elected. He became Teobaldo Visconti, who received the name Gregory X. This prudent politician appointed the Polo family (Nicolo, Morfeo and Marco) as his official envoys to the Mongol Khan. So the brave merchants set off on their long journey to China.

The first stop on their way was the port of Layas, located on the Mediterranean coast. It was a kind of transit point where East and West met. It was here that goods were brought from Asian countries, which were then bought and taken to Europe by the Venetians and Genoese.

From here the Polos proceeded to Asia Minor, which Marco called “Turkomania,” after which they passed through Armenia. The traveler will mention this country in connection with Noah’s Ark, which is supposedly located at the very top of Ararat. Further, their path ran through Mesopotamia, where they visited Mosul and Baghdad, where “the caliph with untold riches lives.” After living here for some time, the Polos rush to Persian Tabriz, where the largest pearl market was located. In his book, Marco described in detail the process of buying and selling this jewelry, which resembled some kind of sacred ritual. They also visited the city of Kerman, after which a high mountain and a rich valley with unusually well-fed bulls and sheep awaited them.

While moving across Persia, the caravan was attacked by robbers who killed some of the accompanying people, but the Polo family miraculously managed to survive. Being on the verge of life and death from extreme thirst that tormented travelers in the sultry desert, the Italians were lucky enough to reach the once prosperous Afghan city of Balkh, where they found their salvation. Further to the east began endless fertile lands that abounded in fruit and game. The next region visited by the Europeans was Badakhshan. There was active mining of precious stones here, carried out by numerous slaves. There is a version that the Europeans stayed in these places for almost a year due to Marco's disease.

The further path ran through the Pamirs, overcoming the spurs of which the travelers ended up in Kashmir. Polo was struck by local sorcerers who “change the weather with conspiracies and unleash great darkness.” The Italian also noted the beauty of local women. Next, the Italians found themselves in the Southern Tien Shan, where no Europeans had ever set foot. Polo notes obvious signs of high altitude: the fire flares up with difficulty and glows with an unusual flame.

The subsequent movement of the caravan went in a north-easterly direction through oases along the edge of the Taklamakan desert. After some time, they reached the first Chinese city of Shangzhou (“Sand Circle”), where Marco was able to witness with his own eyes local rituals, among which he especially highlighted the funeral. Afterwards they passed through Guangzhou and Lanzhou. In the latter he was struck by yaks and a small musk deer, the dried head of which he later took home.

Visiting Khan

After three and a half years of long wanderings, the travelers finally reached the Khan’s possessions. The cavalry detachment that met them accompanied them with great honor to the summer residence of Kublai Khan Shandu. Polo does not describe in detail the solemn ceremony of meeting the ruler, limiting himself to the general words “received with honor, fun and feasting.” But it is known that Kublai spoke for a long time with Europeans in an informal setting. They presented the gifts they had brought, including a vessel with sacred oil from the Jerusalem Church of the Holy Sepulcher, as well as letters from Gregory X. After this, Marco Polo became one of the khan’s courtiers.

To gain Kublai's favor, the clever Italian told him in great detail about the population of the territories under his control, their customs and moods. He always tried to please the ruler with additional information that might interest him. One day, Marco was sent to the distant city of Karanjan, a trip to which took six months. As a result, the young man brought a lot of important information that made him talk about the divine mind and wisdom of the Venetian.

In total, Polo served as Ambassador-at-Large for 17 years. During this time, he traveled all over China, although without leaving details about the purposes of his trips. By the end of this period, the khan had aged greatly, and the process of decentralization began in his state. It became increasingly difficult for him to maintain power over the provinces. All this, as well as a long separation from home, forced the Polo family to think about returning to their homeland.

The way home

And then a convenient excuse was found to leave China. In 1292, envoys arrived to Kublai from one of his governors, who lived in Persia, who asked to find him a bride. After the girl was found, the Venetians volunteered to accompany her.

As M. Polo wrote: “If it weren’t for this happy accident, we would never have left there”. The route of the flotilla, which consisted of 14 ships, lay by sea from Zaiton. Marco left a description of the route, where he indicated that they sailed past the island of Java, landed on Sumatra, crossed the Singapore and Malacca Straits, walked past the Nicobar Islands, about the inhabitants of which the traveler wrote that they walked completely naked.

At this time, the team was thinned to 18 people, but Polo does not specify where the rest of the 600 who sailed went. But he became the first European to leave information about Madagascar (although some of it turned out to be incorrect). As a result, the ship managed to reach the Persian Hormuz, from where Princess Kokechin was taken to her destination in Tabriz. Then the road was well known - through Trebizond to Constantinople. In the winter of 1295, after 24 years of long journeys, Marco Polo returned to his homeland.

Birth of a book

Two years later, the war between Venice and Genoa will begin, in which Polo took part. During one of the battles, he was captured and imprisoned. Here he shared his memories with his cellmate Rusticiano, who wrote down his vivid stories, which were included in the “Book of the Diversity of the World.” Over 140 versions of the work have been preserved, written in 12 languages, which give certain ideas about the life of the countries of Asia and Africa.

Despite the presence of obvious conjectures, for which the author was nicknamed “Million,” it was from Polo that Europeans learned about coal, paper money, the sago palm, and where spices grow. His book served as a guide for cartographers, although over time Marco's errors in calculating distances were proven. In addition, the work contains rich ethnographic material telling about the rituals and traditions of Asian peoples.

last years of life

After returning to his homeland, fate will allow Marco Polo another 25 years of life. At this time, like a true Venetian, he will engage in trade, start a family and give birth to three children. Thanks to his book, translated into Latin and Italian, the traveler will become a real celebrity.

In his declining years, he showed excessive stinginess, which became the reason for litigation with his wife and children. Marco Polo lived to be 70 years old and died in his native Venice. Today, only a small house reminds us of the great countryman. Despite this, in the memory of many people he will remain as a man who discovered an amazing and unknown world, full of secrets, riddles and adventures.

Polo Marco

(c. 1254 - 1324)

Venetian traveler. Born on the island of Korcula (Dalmatian Islands, now in Croatia). In 1271-1275 he traveled to China, where he lived for about 17 years. In 1292-1295 he returned to Italy by sea. The “Book” written in his words (1298) is one of the first sources of European knowledge about the countries of Central, East and South Asia.

The book of the Venetian traveler to China Marco Polo is mainly compiled from personal observations, as well as from the stories of his father Niccolo, uncle Maffeo and people he met.

The older Polos crossed Asia not once, like Marco himself, but three times, twice from west to east and once in the opposite direction, during their first trip. Niccolò and Maffeo left Venice around 1254 and, after a six-year stay in Constantinople, left there for trading purposes in the Southern Crimea, then moved to the Volga in 1261. From the middle Volga, the Polo brothers moved southeast through the lands of the Golden Horde, crossed the Trans-Caspian steppes, and then crossed the Ustyurt plateau to Khorezm, to the city of Urgench. Their further route ran in the same south-eastern direction, up the Amu Darya valley to the lower reaches of Zarafshan and up along it to Bukhara. There they met with the ambassador of the conqueror of Iran, Ilkhan Hulagu, who was heading to the Great Khan Kublai, and the ambassador invited the Venetians to join his caravan. They walked with him "to the north and northeast" whole year.

They ascended along the Zarafshan valley to Samarkand, crossed into the Syr Darya valley and descended along it to the city of Otrar. From here their path lay along the foothills of the Western Tien Shan to the Ili River. Further east they walked either up the Ili valley, or through the Dzhungar Gate, past Lake Alakol (east of Balkhash). They then advanced along the foothills of the Eastern Tien Shan and reached the Hami Oasis, an important stage on the northern branch of the Great Silk Road from China to Central Asia. From Hami they turned south into the valley of the Sulekhe River. And further east, to the court of the Great Khan, they followed the same path that they took later with Marco. Their return route is not clear. They returned to Venice in 1269.

Marco Polo talks sparingly about his childhood, about the first steps of his life until the day he left Venice and went on a journey that brought him immortal fame.

Marco Polo's mother died early, and the boy's uncle - also Marco Polo - probably traded in Constantinople all these years, and the future traveler lived in Venice with his aunt Flora (on his father's side). He had several cousins. It is likely that until Marco’s father returned from Asia, the boy was raised by relatives.

Marco's life proceeded as it did for all boys at that time. Marco acquired knowledge on the canals and embankments, bridges and squares of the city. Very few people received formal education back then; however, contrary to the opinion of many publishers and commentators, it is quite possible that Marco could read and write his native language. In the introductory chapter to his book, Polo reports that "he only wrote a few notes in his notebook", because he did not know whether he would ever return from China to his homeland. In another chapter of the book, Polo states that during his journey to the Great Khan, he tried to be as attentive as possible, noting and writing down everything new and unusual that he heard or saw." Therefore, we can conclude that the boy who, as is known, Subsequently, while in Asia, he learned four languages ​​and could read and write at least a little in Italian. It is possible that he also had some knowledge of French.

The arrival of Niccolò and Maffeo in Venice was a turning point in Marco's entire life. He eagerly listened to the stories of his father and uncle about the mysterious countries they visited, about the many peoples among whom they lived, about their appearance and clothing, their morals and customs - how they were similar and how they were not similar to the Venetians. Marco even began to learn some words and expressions in Tatar, Turkic and other strange languages ​​- his father and uncle often explained themselves in them, and they often peppered their Venetian speech with foreign words. Marco learned what goods different tribes buy and sell, what kind of money they use, where which people are found along the great caravan routes, what they eat and drink where, what rituals they perform with newborns, how they get married, how they bury, what they believe in and what worship. Unconsciously, he accumulated practical knowledge, which in the future would serve him invaluable service.

Niccolo and his brother, after a fifteen-year journey, did not easily put up with a relatively monotonous existence in Venice. Fate persistently called them, and they obeyed its call.

In 1271, Nicollo, Maffeo and seventeen-year-old Marco set off on a journey.

Before this, they met with Pope Gregory X, who had just ascended the throne, who gave them two monks from the Order of Preachers as companions - Brother Piccolo of Vicenza and Brother William of Tripoli.

Three Venetians and two monks reached Layas and began to move east. But as soon as they reached Armenia, they learned that Baybars the Crossbowman, a former slave who had taken the throne of the Mamelukes, had invaded these places with his Saracen army, killing and destroying everything that came to hand. The travelers faced a very real danger, but they decided to move on. However, the frightened monks chose to return to Acre. They gave the Polo brothers papal letters and gifts intended for the Great Khan.

The desertion of the cowardly monks did not at all discourage the Venetians. They knew the road from their previous travels, they knew how to speak local languages, they carried letters and gifts from the highest spiritual shepherd of the West to the greatest monarch of the East, and - most importantly - they had a golden tablet with the personal seal of Kublai, which was a safe conduct and guarantee that they would be provided with food, shelter and hospitality throughout almost the entire territory through which they had to pass.

The first country they passed through was “Little Armenia” (Cilicia) with the port of Layas. There was a lively, widespread trade in cotton and spices here.

From Cilicia, travelers came to modern Anatolia, which Marco calls "Turkomania". He tells us that the Turkomans make the finest and most beautiful carpets in the world.

Having passed through Turkomania, the Venetians entered the borders of Greater Armenia. Here, Marco tells us, on the top of Mount Ararat, is Noah's Ark. The Armenian sovereign Hayton, who wrote the history of his homeland in 1307, when he was abbot of the monastery, says that " this mountain is higher than all the mountains in the world". Both Marco and Highton tell the same story - this mountain is inaccessible because of the snow that covers it in winter and summer, but something black appears in the snow (the ark), and this is visible at any time of the year.

The next city the Venetian traveler talks about was Mosul - “all silk and gold fabrics, which are called mosulins, are made here.” Mosul is located on the western bank of the Tigris, opposite ancient Nineveh, it was so famous for its wonderful woolen fabrics that we still call a certain type of fine woolen fabric “muslin”.

The travelers then stopped in Tabriz, the largest trading center where people from all over the world gathered - there was a thriving merchant colony of the Genoese.

In Tabriz, Marco first saw the world's greatest pearl market - pearls were brought here in large quantities from the shores of the Persian Gulf. In Tabriz it was cleaned, sorted, drilled and strung on threads, and from here it was distributed all over the world. Marco watched with curiosity as pearls were bought and sold. After the pearls were examined and assessed by experts, the seller and buyer squatted down opposite each other and carried on a silent conversation, shaking hands, covered with lowered sleeves, so that none of the witnesses knew on what terms they had bargained.

Leaving Tabriz, the travelers crossed Iran in a southeast direction and visited the city of Kerman.

After seven days of travel from Kerman, the travelers reached the top of a high mountain. It took two days to cross the mountain, and the travelers suffered from severe cold. Then they came out into a vast flowering valley: here Marco saw and described bulls with white humps and sheep with fat tails - “Their tails are thick and large; some weigh about thirty pounds.”

The Venetians now entered dangerous places, for in this part of Persia there were many robbers called Karaunas. Marco writes that they descended from Indian women, and their fathers were Tatars. Acquaintance with the Karaunas almost cost Polo his life and almost deprived the world of one of the most interesting books. Nogodar, the leader of the robbers, attacked the caravan with his gang, taking advantage of the fog that was frequent in this area (Marco attributes the fog to the witchcraft of the Karaunas). The robbers took the travelers by surprise, and they rushed in all directions. Marco, his father and uncle and some of their guides, seven people in all, escaped to a nearby village. All the rest were captured and killed by the robbers or sold into slavery.

Having re-formed the caravan, the undaunted Venetians moved towards their goal - to the Persian Gulf, to Hormuz. Here they were going to board a ship and sail to China - Hormuz was then the final point of maritime trade between the Far East and Persia. The transition lasted seven days. At first, the road went along a steep descent from the Iranian plateau - a mountain path where many robbers ran amok. Then, closer to Hormuz, a beautiful, well-watered valley opened up - date palms, pomegranates, oranges and other fruit trees grew here, and countless flocks of birds flew.

At the time of Polo, Hormuz was on the mainland. Later, as a result of raids by hostile tribes, it was destroyed, and "The inhabitants moved their city to an island five miles from the mainland."

Obviously, the Venetians came to the conclusion that a long voyage on the local unreliable ships, especially with horses, usually loaded on top of goods covered with leather, was too risky - they turned to the northeast, inland, towards the Pamirs.

For more than a week they rode through deserted places where the water is green like grass and very bitter, they reached Cobian, and then made a multi-day journey through the desert and arrived in Tonokain. Marco liked the people of these countries very much. Here he makes his conclusions about women - the first of many. The Tonokain women made a very strong impression on him, for when twenty-five years later, having already visited many countries, seen many women and, no doubt, experienced many hobbies, he wrote his book, he could still say that Muslim girls in Tonokaine are the most beautiful in the world.

For many days the Venetians traveled through hot deserts and fertile plains and ended up in the city of Sapurgan (Shibargan), where, to Marco’s pleasure, game was abundant and hunting was excellent. From Sapurgan the caravan headed towards Balkh, in northern Afghanistan. Balkh is one of the oldest cities in Asia, once the capital of Bactriana. Although the city surrendered to the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan without resistance, the conqueror sold all the youth into slavery and killed the rest of the city's population with incredible cruelty. Balkh was swept off the face of the earth. The Venetians saw sad ruins before them, although some of the inhabitants of the city who had survived the Tatar sword were already returning to their old place.

It was in this city, as legend says, that Alexander the Great married Roxana, the daughter of the Persian king Darius.

Leaving Balkh, the travelers spent many days moving through lands abounding in game, fruits, nuts, grapes, salt, and wheat. Having left these beautiful places, the Venetians again found themselves in the desert for several days and finally arrived in Badakhshan (Balashan), a Muslim region along the Oka River (Amu Darya). There they saw large mines of rubies, called "balashs", deposits of sapphires, lapis lazuli - Badakhshan was famous for all this for centuries.

The caravan stayed here for a whole year, either due to Marco’s illness, or because the Polo brothers decided to live in the wonderful climate of Badakhshan to ensure the young man’s complete recovery.

From Badakhshan, travelers, rising higher and higher, went towards the Pamirs - upstream of the Oka River; They also passed through the Kashmir Valley. Marco, who was undoubtedly deeply impressed by these places, claims that the local residents practice witchcraft and black magic. According to Marco, they can make idols speak, change the weather at will, turn darkness into sunlight and vice versa. Despite the popular perception of the people of Kashmir as swindlers and deceivers, Marco found that the women there "even though they are black, they are good". Indeed, Kashmiri women have been famous for their beauty throughout India for centuries; people everywhere sought to take them as wives and concubines.

From Kashmir, the caravan went northeast and climbed to the Pamirs: Marco’s guides assured that this was the highest place in the world. Marco notes that during his stay there the air was so cold that not a single bird was visible anywhere. The stories of many ancient Chinese pilgrims who crossed the Pamirs confirm Marco’s message, and the latest researchers say the same. The Venetian had a keen eye, and the ascent to the roof of the world was so engraved in his memory that when, almost thirty years later, he dictated his book in distant Genoa, he recalled how dimly the fire laid by the travelers burned at this height, how it glowed with others , unusual color, how much more difficult than usual it was to cook food there.

Descending from the Pamirs along the gorge of the Gyoz River (Gyozdarya is a southern tributary of the Kashgar River), the Polos entered the wide plains of Eastern Turkestan, now called Xinjiang. Here deserts alternated between rich oases, watered by many rivers flowing from the south and west.

Polo, first of all, visited Kashgar - the local climate seemed moderate to Marco, nature, in his opinion, gave here "everything you need for life". From Kashgar the caravan's route continued to the northeast. Although Niccolo and Maffeo probably lived in Samarkand during their first journey, we have no evidence that Marco visited here.

During his journey, Polo described the ancient city of Khotan, where emeralds had been mined for centuries. But much more important here was the trade in jade, which from century to century went from here to the Chinese market. Travelers could observe how workers dug up pieces of precious stone in the beds of dried up rivers - this is how it is done there to this day. From Khotan, jade was transported through the deserts to Beijing and Shazhou, where it was used for polished products of a sacred and non-sacred nature. The Chinese's thirst for jade is insatiable; there is nothing more valuable to them than jade; they consider it the quintessence, the material embodiment of the power of yang - the bright masculine principle of the universe.

Having left Khotan, Polo, stopping to rest at rare oases and wells, drove through a monotonous desert covered with dunes.

The caravan moved through vast desert spaces, occasionally bumping into oases - Tatar tribes and Muslims lived here. The transition from one oasis to another took several days; it was necessary to take with you more water and food. In Lon (modern Charklyk), travelers stood for a whole week to gain strength to overcome the Gobi Desert (“gobi” in Mongolian means “desert”). A large supply of food was loaded onto camels and donkeys.

On the thirtieth day of the journey, the caravan arrived in Shazhou (“Sand District”), located on the border of the desert. It was here that Marco first observed purely Chinese morals and customs. He was especially struck by the funeral rites in Shazhou - he describes in detail how coffins were made, how the deceased was kept in the house in the coffin, how offerings were made to the spirit of the deceased, how paper images were burned, and so on.

From Ganzhou our travelers headed to the city that is now called Lanzhou. On the way, Marco saw yaks: the size of these animals and their role in the economy made a vivid impression on him. The valuable small musk deer (musk deer) - this animal is found in large numbers there to this day - interested Marco Polo so much that, returning to his homeland, he took it with him thousands of miles to Venice "the dried head and feet of this beast."

And now the long journey through the plains, mountains and deserts of Asia is coming to an end. It took three and a half years: during this time, Marco saw and experienced a lot, and learned a lot. But this endless journey, one must think, got tired of both Marco and his senior companions. One can imagine their joy when they saw on the horizon the cavalry detachment sent by the Great Khan to accompany the Venetians to the Khan's court. The squad leader told Polo that they needed to do more "forty day's march"- he meant the path to Shandu, the summer residence of the khan, - and that the convoy was sent so that the travelers would arrive in complete safety and come straight to Kublai. "Isn't it- said the head of the detachment, - "Are not the noble Messers Piccolo and Maffeo the plenipotentiary ambassadors of the Khan to the Apostle and should not be received according to their rank and position?"

The rest of the journey flew by unnoticed: at every stop they were greeted with the best possible welcome, and everything they needed was at their service. On the fortieth day, Shandu appeared on the horizon, and soon the exhausted caravan of Venetians entered its high gates.

Surprisingly, Marco described the reception given to the travelers by Kublai Khan very simply and restrainedly. Usually, he does not hesitate to describe at length the pomp and splendor of the khan’s receptions and feasts, processions and celebrations. Venetians upon arrival in Xandu "we went to the main palace, where the great khan was, and with him a large gathering of barons". The Venetians knelt before the khan and bowed to the ground. Kublai mercifully ordered them to stand up and "received them with honor, with fun and feasts."

After the official reception, the Great Khan talked for a long time with the Polo brothers; he wanted to find out about all their adventures, starting from the day they left the Khan’s court many years ago. Then the Venetians presented him with gifts and letters entrusted to them by Pope Gregory (and two timid monks who turned back), and also handed over a vessel with holy oil, taken at the request of the khan from the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and carefully preserved through all the vicissitudes and dangers of the long journey with shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Marco was included in the list of courtiers.

The young Venetian very soon attracted the attention of Kublai Kublai - this happened thanks to Marco’s intelligence and ingenuity. He noticed how greedily Khubilai accepted all kinds of information about the lands under his control, about their population, customs, and wealth; the Venetian also saw that the khan did not tolerate it when the ambassador, having completed all the assigned tasks, returned without any additional information and observations obtained beyond the instructions. Cunningly deciding to take advantage of this, Marco began to collect information, making notes about every place he went to, and always sharing his observations with the khan.

According to Marco himself, the Great Khan decided to test him as an ambassador and sent him to the remote city of Karajan (in Yunnan province) - this city was so far from Khanbalik that Marco "barely turned around in six months". The young man coped with the task brilliantly and provided his ruler with a lot of very interesting information. Marco's stories fascinated the Great Khan: “In the eyes of the sovereign, this noble young man possessed a divine mind rather than a human one, and the sovereign’s love increased,<...>until the sovereign and the whole court spoke of nothing with such surprise as the wisdom of the noble young man.”

The Venetian remained in the service of the Great Khan for seventeen years. Marco never reveals to the reader exactly what kind of cases he was sent on as a confidant of Kublai Khan for many years. It is impossible to accurately trace his travels in China.

Marco reports about the peoples and tribes of China and its neighboring countries, about the amazing views of the Tibetans on morality; he described the indigenous population of Yunnan and other provinces.

The chapter of Marco’s book is very interesting, in which he talks about the ancient custom of using cowrie shells as money, about crocodiles (Marco considered them snakes with two legs) and methods of catching them. He also talks about the custom of the Yunnanese: if a handsome or noble stranger or any person stayed in their house "with good fame, influence and weight", at night he was poisoned or killed in some other way. "They didn't kill him to rob him of his money, or out of hatred for him.", but so that his soul would remain in the house where he was killed and bring happiness. The more beautiful and noble the murdered person, the Yunnanese believed, the happier the house in which his soul remained.

As a reward for his loyalty and in recognition of his administrative abilities and knowledge of the country, Khubilai appointed Marco ruler of the city of Yangzhou, in the province of Jiangsu, on the Grand Canal, near its junction with the Yangtze.

Considering the commercial importance of Yangzhou and the fact that Marco lived there for a long time, one cannot help but be surprised that the traveler devoted one short chapter to it. Stating that "Mr. Marco Polo, the same one mentioned in this book, ruled this city for three years"(from approximately 1284 to 1287), the author sparingly notes that "The people here are commercial and industrial" that they make a lot of weapons and armor here.

The Venetians enjoyed the patronage and great favors of Kublai, and in his service they acquired wealth and power. But the khan's favor aroused envy and hatred towards them. The Venetians became more and more enemies at the court of Kublai Kublai. They feared the day when the khan would die. It cost their powerful patron "to ascend upward" on the dragon, as they would find themselves unarmed in the face of their enemies, and their wealth would almost inevitably doom them to death.

And they got ready to go. However, the khan at first did not want to let the Venetians go.

Kublai called Marco to him along with his father and uncle, told them about his great love for them and asked them to promise, after visiting a Christian country and at home, to return to him. He ordered to give them a golden tablet with commands so that throughout his land there would be no delays and food would be given everywhere, he ordered them to be provided with guides for safety, and also authorized them to be his ambassadors to the pope, the French and Spanish kings and other Christian rulers .

The Great Khan ordered fourteen ships to be equipped for the voyage. The ships were probably stationed in Zaitong (Quanzhou), they had four masts and so many sails that Marco was amazed, as were all the medieval travelers who found themselves in the Far East.

After spending many years in the service of Kublai Kublai, the Venetians returned to their homeland by sea - around South Asia and through Iran. They accompanied, on behalf of the Great Khan, two princesses - a Chinese and a Mongolian, who were married to the Ilkhan (the Mongol ruler of Iran) and his heir, to the capital of the Ilkhans, Tabriz. In 1292, the Chinese flotilla moved from Zeitun to the southwest, across the Chip (South China) Sea. During this passage, Marco heard about Indonesia - about "7448 islands" scattered in the Chin Sea, but he only visited Sumatra, where the travelers lived for five months. From Sumatra the flotilla moved to the island of Sri Lanka past the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Marco incorrectly classifies Sri Lanka (as well as Java) among "the biggest in the world" islands, but truthfully describes the life of Sri Lankans, deposits of precious stones and the famous pearl fishing in the Palk Strait. From Sri Lanka, ships passed along Western India and Southern Iran, through the Strait of Hormuz into the Persian Gulf.

Marco also talks about African countries adjacent to the Indian Ocean, which he, apparently, did not visit: about the great country of Abasia (Abyssinia, i.e. Ethiopia), about the islands of "Zangibar" and "Zangibar" located near the equator and in the southern hemisphere. Madeigascar." But he confuses Zanzibar with Madagascar, and both islands with the coastal region of East Africa, and therefore gives a lot of incorrect information about them. Yet Marco was the first European to report on Madagascar. After a three-year voyage, the Venetians brought the princesses to Iran (about 1294), and in 1295 they arrived home. According to some reports, Marco took part in the war with Genoa and around 1297, during a naval battle, he was captured by the Genoese. In prison in 1298, he dictated the Book, and in 1299 he was released and returned to his homeland. Almost all the information given by biographers about his subsequent life in Venice is based on later sources, some of which even date back to the 16th century. Very few documents from the 14th century about Marco himself and his family have survived to our time. It has been proven, however, that he lived out his life as a wealthy, but far from wealthy, Venetian citizen. He died in 1324.

The vast majority of biographers and commentators believe that Marco Polo actually made the journeys that he talks about in his Book. However, many mysteries still remain.

How could he, during his travels, “not notice” the most grandiose defensive structure in the world - the Great Wall of China? Why did Polo, who lived for so many years in the northern capital of China and visited many Chinese cities, and therefore saw many Chinese women, not say a word about the custom that was already widespread among Chinese women to disfigure their feet? Why doesn't Polo mention anywhere such an important and characteristic Chinese consumer product as tea? But it was precisely due to such gaps in the Book and the fact that Marco undoubtedly did not know either the Chinese language or Chinese geographical nomenclature (with minor exceptions), some of the most skeptical historians in the first half of the 19th century suggested that Marco Polo I've never been to China.

In the XIV-XV centuries, the “Book” of Marco Polo served as one of the guides for cartographers. The “Book” of Marco Polo played a very important role in the history of great discoveries. Not only did the organizers and leaders of the Portuguese and first Spanish expeditions of the 15th-16th centuries use maps compiled under the strong influence of Polo, but his work itself was a reference book for outstanding cosmographers and seafarers, including Columbus. The "Book" of Marco Polo is one of the rare medieval works - literary works and scientific works that are read and reread today. It has entered the golden fund of world literature, translated into many languages, published and republished in many countries around the world.

MEETING WITH ASIA THE MAGNIFICENT (Marco Polo) The famous Soviet writer and publicist Viktor Shklovsky has one little-known story for children: “Marco Polo the Scout” (1931). A strange title for a work about a great traveler who is rightly considered