There are currently 27* federal states in the world. How they were created, what influence the subjects have on the central government, and it on them, how powers are delineated between them - read in the Kommersant reference book.

Republic of Austria

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 83.9 thousand square meters. km (112th place in the world), population - 8.8 million (97th), GDP - $386 billion (28th)

Components: nine lands, one of which is the capital

It arose after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, was originally called German Austria and planned to become part of Germany. It did not exist as an independent state in 1938-1945 due to its accession to the Third Reich. The federal structure is enshrined in the constitution adopted in 1920 by the National Assembly, formed by general elections.

The Constitution establishes that the territory of Austria consists of independent states, but does not give them the possibility of secession. To change the boundaries of subjects, the adoption of identical laws of the federation and lands is required. When concluding an international treaty that changes the borders of a country, the consent of the affected lands is also required. A significant change in the territory of Austria occurred in 1921, when it included the land of Burgenland, the right to which was disputed by Hungary. In 1922, Vienna seceded from Lower Austria and became an independent state.

The head of state is the popularly elected president. Nevertheless, the main powers to govern the country are exercised by the government headed by the Chancellor. Formally, he is appointed by the president, but in practice he becomes the leader of the party of the parliamentary majority. Parliament consists of two chambers. The lower one (Nationalrat) is elected according to party lists, the upper one (Bundesrat) consists of representatives of the states (from 3 to 12 depending on the population).

The regions have their own parliaments (Landtags). The executive branch is headed by the head of government (Landeshauptmann), elected by the Landtag and sworn in by the federal president. Federal authorities have no formal influence on the appointment.

In the distribution of powers, which is enshrined in the constitution, a clear advantage is given to the federal authorities. They are in charge not only of international affairs, economics and finance, security, industry and transport, but even school education. The heads of public security departments in the states are appointed directly by the head of the Austrian Ministry of Internal Affairs in consultation with the heads of the states. Tax revenues are partially distributed between budgets of various levels; part of the taxes goes exclusively to the lands (for example, land tax, for the maintenance of firefighters, for income from entertainment events, hunting fees, etc.). The principles for the distribution of income are established by laws adopted every five years. The lands have their own constitutions and citizenship, but do not have their own language. They can conclude international treaties only with bordering countries or their parts within the limits of their competence and with the consent of the federal authorities.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 51.2 thousand square meters. km (125th), population - 3.5 million (133rd), GDP - $16.6 billion (113th)

Components: two entities (entities) - the Republika Srpska (RS) and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBG), as well as the Autonomous District of Brčko. The FBG also has a federal structure and is divided into ten cantons

It arose as a result of the collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The territorial structure is enshrined in the constitution, adopted in December 1995 as Appendix No. 4 to the Dayton Agreements, which put an end to the civil war in the republic. The document does not provide for the possibility of separating the component parts. Nevertheless, the RS authorities have repeatedly announced the possibility of organizing a referendum on secession from BiH.

The Constitution provides for the formation of government bodies on a national basis. Parliament (Assembly) consists of two chambers. The House of Representatives is elected according to party lists on the territory of the FBG (2/3 of the composition) and the RS (1/3 of the composition). The House of Peoples (upper) includes five representatives each of Croats, Bosniaks and Serbs, elected by the parliaments of the entities. The collective head of state, the Presidium, consists of a Bosnian, a Croat and a Serb, elected to the FBG and RS respectively. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers (government) is appointed by the presidium and approved by the House of Representatives. In addition, the country has an international administration headed by the High Representative for BiH, which monitors compliance with the Dayton Agreements. He has broad powers and can fire local officials, repeal laws and issue decrees.

The Constitution lists the responsibilities of the center (foreign, customs and monetary policy, foreign trade, immigration issues, air traffic, etc.). All powers not directly assigned to it are exercised by subjects who have been granted significant independence. Both entities elect their own presidents and parliaments, have a police force, a judicial system and prosecutor's office, statistical and tax services. Until 2006, they also had their own armed forces, which are now united and subordinated to the federal Ministry of Defense. In addition, the entities have their own constitutions, citizenship, flag, coat of arms and anthem. They can establish “special parallel relations” with neighboring countries, as well as enter into international agreements with the consent of the federal parliament. The district of Brčko, where, unlike other regions of the country, there is no dominant nationality, is formally included in both entities and is directly subordinate to the federal authorities.

Kingdom of Belgium

Form of government: a constitutional monarchy

Place in the world: area - 30.5 thousand square meters. km (137th), population - 11.4 million (79th), GDP - $466 billion (24th)

Components: three communities, three regions and four language zones

Belgium was formed as a unitary state, but at the end of the 20th century, in the course of successive constitutional reforms, it became a unique multi-level federation.

According to the second article of the constitution, the country is divided into three communities exercising cultural and linguistic autonomy - Flemish, French and German-speaking. The third article divides the state into three regions with territorial, administrative and economic autonomy. These are the Flemish Region, or Flanders (44.3% of the territory, 58% of the population and 58% of GDP), the Walloon Region, or Wallonia (55.2, 32 and 23%), and the Brussels-Capital Region (0.5, 10 and 19 %). The fourth article defines four language zones - Dutch, French, metropolitan bilingual and German. Flanders and Wallonia are each divided into five provinces with considerable independence. The boundaries of all entities can only be changed by their legislative bodies.

Formally, the country's government is appointed by the king and approved by the bicameral federal parliament. It is headed, as a rule, by a representative of the party that won the elections. The constitution requires that the cabinet of ministers, excluding the prime minister, consist of no more than 14 people - equally from the Flemish and French communities. The electoral system is designed in such a way that in fact governments can only form coalitions. During the acute political crisis of 2010–2011, due to the inability of the parties to reach an agreement, the country lived without a government for 541 days.

The regions are responsible for economic management, including foreign trade and the introduction of local taxes and fees, issues of territorial development, ecology, etc. Communities are primarily responsible for culture and education, as well as some social issues. Each region and community has its own parliament and government, but the "Flemish subjects" united them. The competence of the subjects is enshrined in the constitution, and the center exercises “residual” powers that have not been transferred to them. These are, for example, issues of foreign policy, defense and the fight against crime, public finance, including the redistribution of income, nuclear energy and the management of state-owned companies. At the same time, the constitution provides for the possibility of determining a list of exclusive powers of the federation, after which the regions will receive all remaining powers. Currently, in wealthy Flanders, voices are being heard about the need to move towards a confederal structure of the country, in which the center would only have questions of foreign policy and defense.

Russian Federation

Form of government: presidential-parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 17.1 million sq. km (1st), population - 146.9 million (9th), GDP - $1.3 trillion (12th)

Components: 22 republics, 9 territories, 46 regions, 1 autonomous region, 4 autonomous districts and 3 federal cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg and Sevastopol)

After the collapse of the USSR and before the adoption of the first Constitution of the Russian Federation on December 12, 1993, issues of delimitation of powers between the center and the constituent entities were regulated by the Federal Treaty signed on March 31, 1992. The document was signed by President Boris Yeltsin and authorized representatives of all constituent entities of the former RSFSR, except Tatarstan and Checheno-Ingushetia. Relations with Tatarstan were regulated in 1994 by the Agreement on Mutual Delegation of Powers. Ingushetia, which separated from Chechnya, became part of Russia on June 4, 1992, following a referendum, and the status of Chechnya was finally determined with the adoption of the constitution of the republic on March 23, 2003.

According to the Constitution, the boundaries between subjects can be changed with their mutual consent. According to this principle, in 2003-2008, as a result of the unification of regions through referendums, their number decreased from 89 to 83. Each subject of the Russian Federation has its own fundamental act (constitution or charter). The right of unilateral withdrawal from the federation is not provided, and the admission of a new entity to Russia is possible on the basis of an international treaty with the approval of the Constitutional Court and both chambers of parliament. According to this mechanism, Crimea became part of Russia in 2014. As a result, two new entities were formed - the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol.

The head of state is the popularly elected president. The highest legislative body is the Federal Assembly, consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council (2 representatives from each subject) and the State Duma (450 deputies). The senator from the legislative branch of the region is chosen from among their number by the deputies of the regional legislative assembly, from the executive branch - the governor from the three candidates he himself proposed in the elections. State Duma deputies are popularly elected from party lists and single-mandate constituencies. The highest executive body is the government of the Russian Federation, headed by the prime minister, appointed by the president with the consent of the State Duma.

A typical system of government bodies in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is the governor (head of the republic, mayor or chairman of the government), legislative assembly, government (administration), courts. Heads of regions are elected directly by citizens or legislative bodies of the subject on the proposal of the President of the Russian Federation. Legislative bodies consist of deputies elected under a mixed majority-proportional system.

The competence of the center and issues of joint jurisdiction of the federation and the subjects are enshrined in the Constitution. The Russian Federation is in charge of issues of international relations, defense, public finance, nuclear energy, and space activities. The joint responsibility includes the personnel of judicial and law enforcement agencies, the establishment of taxation principles, issues of land use, subsoil resources, issues of education and health care; regional, international and foreign economic relations. The subjects are under the exclusive control of their own budgets, issues of internal administrative-territorial division, and management of regional property. The state language throughout the Russian Federation is Russian, but the Constitution gives the republics the right to establish their own state languages.

Federal Republic of Germany

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 357 thousand square meters. km (62nd), population - 81.5 million (16th), GDP - $2.94 trillion (5th)

Components: 16 states, 3 of which are actually cities - Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen

It was created in the territories of the American, British and French occupation zones after the Second World War. The federal structure is enshrined in the basic law, which was approved by the parliaments of 12 subjects of the future federation. Only Bavaria was opposed, but the support of the majority of the states was sufficient for the document to be adopted.

The Basic Law prohibits changing the principle of dividing the country into lands, but allows for changes in their territories, which requires approval by a referendum. According to this procedure, in 1952 the three states united into the current Baden-Württemberg, and in 1996 the merger of Berlin and Brandenburg failed. In 1957, the Saarland, which had previously been a French protectorate, joined the Federal Republic of Germany. The most significant change in the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany occurred in 1990, when five states of the former German Democratic Republic (emerged in 1949 on the site of the Soviet occupation zone) were included in its composition on the basis of an international treaty. The right of lands to secede from the federation is not provided; there have been no attempts to secede.

The head of state is the president, elected by the federal assembly. This temporary body includes members of the federal parliament (Bundestag) and representatives of the states. Real powers are in the hands of the chancellor who heads the government, who is elected only by the Bundestag. The Bundestag is elected according to a mixed system (by districts and by party lists). At the federal level, the regions are represented by a separate body, the Bundesrat. It is not formally the upper house of parliament, but laws amending the constitution or affecting regional issues require its approval. The states are represented in the Bundesrat by members of their governments ranging from three to six people (depending on population).

In the subjects, legislative functions are carried out by land parliaments - Landtags (in Bremen and Hamburg they are called burgerschafts, in Berlin - the Chamber of Deputies). They appoint heads of executive power - prime ministers or burgomasters (in land-cities). Federal authorities have no formal influence on the appointment.

According to the Basic Law, the competence of the federation includes issues of defense, security, international relations, finance, transport, postal services, and communications. But even in these areas, the Länder are given broad powers. For example, the heads of regional Ministries of Internal Affairs are appointed by the prime ministers of their lands. Most taxes are collected and distributed centrally. Subjects are assigned revenue from some of the secondary taxes (on property, inheritance, transport); they cannot introduce their own taxes. The lands have their own constitutions and have limited international legal personality (they can enter into external treaties only with the consent of the center and on issues of their competence), but do not have their own language and citizenship.

Swiss Confederation

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 41.3 thousand square meters. km (132nd), population - 8.5 million (99th), GDP - $660 billion (19th)

Components: 26 cantons

Despite the name, it is a federal state formed on the basis of a previously existing weak confederal union. The evolution of the confederacy into a federation occurred after the Civil War in 1847. The main provisions of the federal structure are enshrined in the constitution of 1848 and are preserved in its latest version in 1999. It stipulates that changes in the composition of cantons require referendums to be held in the affected areas and cantons, as well as at the federal level. The only such change occurred in 1978, when French-speaking districts separated from the German-speaking canton of Bern, creating the new canton of Jura.

The highest legislative body is the bicameral Federal Assembly. Deputies of the lower house are elected through direct elections using a proportional system, with each canton assigned a certain number of seats depending on the population. Also, residents of each subject elect one or two deputies to the upper house, representing the interests of the cantons. Executive power is exercised by the Bundesrat, consisting of seven members elected by parliament. Each year, a president (together with a vice-president) is elected from among them. Formally, he remains first among equals, and the role of both the government and the collective head of state is performed by the Bundesrat as a whole. Each canton has its own parliaments and governments elected by the people. In addition, in two cantons, people's assemblies have been preserved - gatherings of all residents, at which various issues of governance are resolved.

According to the constitution, the subjects are sovereign and independent, they have all the powers that are not assigned to the federation. The competence of the central authorities includes foreign policy, security, customs, financial policy, transport, radio and television, etc. Everything else falls to the cantons (in particular, police, education, culture). Sometimes powers are divided between different levels of government (so both the federation and the cantons collect their own taxes). The cantons have their own constitutions and languages. They can conclude international agreements in the area of ​​their competence, as well as agreements among themselves to jointly resolve issues under their control. A peculiarity of Switzerland is the active use of referendums to resolve both regional and federal issues. At the same time, when voting to change the constitution, it is necessary to obtain the approval of not only the majority of citizens, but also the majority of the cantons. In addition, the eight cantons themselves can initiate a referendum on the approval of federal laws and international treaties.

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 881.9 thousand square meters. km (33rd), population - 210.5 million (5th), GDP - $284 billion (41st)

Components: 4 provinces, federally administered tribal areas, federal capital territory

Pakistan was created during the decolonization of British India and included areas inhabited predominantly by Muslims. It was divided into two territorially unconnected parts - West and East Pakistan. In 1971, after a short war, East Pakistan gained independence as the Republic of Bangladesh. The foundations of federalism in the country were laid by the British Government of India Act of 1935, which, with a number of amendments, was in force until the adoption of the first constitution in 1956. The principles of federal relations have changed radically several times.

The current constitution of 1973 mentions six constituent parts of the federation: four provinces, federally administered tribal areas and the capital territory. In addition, Islamabad controls two more regions that are de jure not included in the system of federal relations: the province of Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir, which Pakistan officially recognizes as an independent state. India considers both regions to be part of its state of Jammu and Kashmir.

The constitution provides for a bicameral parliament, in which the lower house (National Assembly) represents the population and the upper house (Senate) represents the regions. The National Assembly is elected in the subjects depending on their population. Punjab has the most delegated legislators - 148 out of 342, while the Federal Capital Territory has the least (2). In the Senate, each province provides 14 deputies, tribal territories - 8, the capital - 2. Moreover, in both chambers there are additional quotas for various segments of society (women, non-Muslims, professional communities). The political system is structured so that Punjabi dominance in the National Assembly is balanced by equal regional representation in the Senate. However, for some sensitive issues, such as the adoption of a budget, only the approval of the lower house is sufficient. The country's president is elected by members of the federal and provincial parliaments, and the prime minister represents the majority only in the lower house. Throughout the history of the country, the balance of power between them has changed several times; currently, the real executive power is in the hands of the prime minister.

At the local level, the system of organizing power is similar. In each province there are legislative assemblies elected according to a majoritarian system (quotas for minorities are also present here). They appoint the chairmen of regional governments, who are effectively the executive branch. However, there are also governors appointed from the center and who have the right to dissolve local parliaments. The recent trend has been a gradual increase in the powers of the provinces. The 18th Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 2010, allowed them to take out loans, including from abroad, extended the principle of parity of ownership to mineral deposits, and transferred the sales tax on services to the regions. The amendment also abolished the category of joint jurisdiction, transferring 40 of the 47 competencies included there to the local level.

Malaysia

Form of government: a constitutional monarchy

Place in the world: area - 330.8 thousand square meters. km (67th), population - 32.4 million (41st), GDP - $296 billion (38th)

Components: 13 states, 3 federal territories

The state arose from the unification of the former British possessions of the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo. According to the constitution, the accession of new states to the federation or changes in their boundaries occurs by decision of the federal parliament. However, in 1965, this procedure was used to exclude Singapore from the federation, which became an independent state.

Some federations are led by a collective head. For example, the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of Serb Nebojsa Radmanovic (second from left), Croat Zeljko Komsic (second from right) and Bosnian Bakir Izetbegovic (right)

A special feature of Malaysia is the different forms of government in the regions. Nine states are headed by hereditary monarchs (in seven there are sultans, in one there is a great ruler, in one there is a rajah). Every five years, they elect from among their members a head of state - the supreme ruler (yang di pertuan agong). He, in turn, appoints the governors of four other states. The lower house of the federal parliament is elected in single-member constituencies, the upper house is partly appointed by the supreme ruler, and partly elected by state parliaments. The monarch performs mainly representative functions. Real executive power belongs to the government headed by the prime minister, who becomes the leader of the party of the parliamentary majority. All states have elected unicameral parliaments and governments that perform an advisory function. The federal territories (the capital Kuala Lumpur, the administrative center Putrajaya and the financial center Labuan) are administered directly by the federal government.

The powers of the federation and states are enshrined in a special annex to the constitution. The federation's extensive list of powers includes foreign policy, defense and security (including prisons and police), anti-corruption, finance and trade, navigation, road infrastructure, media, tourism, gambling, etc. The states are responsible for secondary issues, including transactions with land, agriculture and forestry, river fishing, etc. There are also issues of overlapping competence, but priority in them is given to the federation. State revenues also largely depend on subsidies from the center, calculated depending on population size. In addition, states are assigned deductions from the alcohol trade, forestry and mining industries, agriculture, and the entertainment industry.

United Arab Emirates

Form of government: a constitutional monarchy

Place in the world: area - 83.6 thousand square meters. km (113th), population - 9.4 million (94th), GDP - $349 billion (31st)

Components: seven emirates

The Federation was formed in 1971 by uniting six emirates that gained independence from Great Britain. In 1972, another emirate joined it. The constitution allows for the annexation of any independent Arab country, which requires the approval of the authorities of all emirates. Leaving the federation is prohibited.

The main authority is the Supreme Council (SC), which includes the monarchs of all emirates. He determines the general policy of the country and makes decisions on all major issues. The Supreme Council elects the president and vice-president of the country for five years, who, according to tradition, are the emirs of the largest emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The President presides over meetings of the Supreme Council, signs laws adopted by him, and represents the country in the world. The UAE government is headed by a prime minister, appointed and removed by the president with the consent of the Supreme Council. The Federal National Council (parliament) includes representatives of the emirates, and each of them is assigned a certain number of seats depending on the population (from 4 to 8). Traditionally, deputies were appointed by emirs, but in 2006, for the first time, half of them were elected by an electoral college. The UAE Parliament performs only advisory functions, and the main role in the adoption of laws belongs to the Supreme Court. If at the federal level there are some republican elements (formally an elected president), then the emirates, where all power belongs to the hereditary rulers, are absolute monarchies.

Among the powers of the federation enshrined in the constitution are foreign policy, defense and security, finance, postal services, telephone and Internet, road construction, air travel, education and health care, immigration issues, etc. All unspecified areas fall under the jurisdiction of the emirates. They have the right, with the consent of the Supreme Council, to conclude international agreements with neighboring countries; their right to be members of OPEC and the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries is separately stipulated. According to the constitution, the emirates should benefit from the existence of the federation and enjoy its protection. At the same time, they must transfer part of their income to the federal budget.

Republic of India

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 3.29 million sq. km (7th), population - 1.33 billion (2nd), GDP - $2.26 trillion (7th)

Components: 29 states, 7 union territories including National Capital Territory of Delhi

Adopted by the Constituent Assembly convened after independence, the constitution divided the Union (as the country is called in the document) into four categories of units. 9 states had their own parliaments and governments, 8 former princely states or their unions were ruled by nominal monarchs, 10 states and one union territory were ruled by presidential appointees. This system did not take into account the requests of the country's numerous ethnic groups, so the process of dividing territories began almost immediately. To streamline it, a full-scale change in the structure of the country was carried out in 1956 - 14 equivalent states and 6 union territories were created. Subsequently, the number of subjects and their boundaries changed repeatedly due to the division of states, union territories receiving state status or the annexation of new lands (for example, the annexation of Portuguese India in 1961).

The Constitution does not guarantee the integrity of the constituent entities of the federation, with the exception of Jammu and Kashmir (only this state has its own constitution). The Federal Parliament has the right to change the division of the country in any way. A significant change occurred in 2000, when three new states were created at once. The last (29th) state of Telangana was formed in 2014 by carving out from Andhra Pradesh. In general, subjects vary greatly in their importance. The most populous state of Uttar Pradesh is home to 200 million people, while the island union territory of Lakshadweep has only 65 thousand.

The head of India is the president, elected by an electoral college, but real power belongs to the prime minister, who represents the majority of the lower house of parliament. The latter is elected by universal suffrage using a majoritarian system. Representatives of the constituent entities are elected to the upper house by indirect voting depending on the size of their population (from 1 to 31). India is a centralized federation: constituent entities enjoy little autonomy and their powers can be reduced or expanded by the federal parliament. State governors are appointed by the president in consultation with the federal government. But in the states there is also the position of head of government, appointed by the local parliament. Union territories are governed solely by representatives of the President. At the same time, two territories - Delhi and Pondicherry (formerly French India) - are partially equal in rights with the states, have their own governments and are represented in the upper house of parliament. There is no nationality for states, but they can set their own official languages. It is also worth noting the possibility of the president introducing a state of emergency, including in individual states “due to the failure of the constitutional mechanism in them,” under which India would essentially become a unitary state.

Republic of Iraq

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 438.3 thousand square meters. km (58th), population - 38.3 million (36th), GDP - $171.5 billion (53rd)

Components: 19 provinces, 4 of which are part of Iraqi Kurdistan

Iraq gained independence from Great Britain in 1932, and in 1958, after the overthrow of the monarchy, it became a republic. However, the transformation into a federation occurred only after the overthrow of dictator Saddam Hussein.

The country is currently divided into 19 provinces. According to the constitution of October 15, 2005, Iraq should consist of regions, provinces and the capital Baghdad. Regions should be formed on the basis of one or more provinces on the initiative of local authorities or the population; their creation is approved by referendum. However, at the moment, the only existing federal region is the Kurdistan Region, which existed on the territory of the provinces of Erbil, Dohuk, Sulaymaniyah and Halabja even before the constitution came into force. Basra has repeatedly stated its desire to become an autonomous region, but a referendum on this issue has not yet been held.

The lower house of Iraq's parliament is elected through direct elections based on party lists. The upper one, which should include representatives of regions and provinces, has not yet been formed. The executive branch is headed by the Prime Minister, nominated by the largest faction in parliament and approved by the majority of deputies. The President, who is a symbol of the country's unity, is also elected by deputies. In practice, when forming government bodies, the ethno-religious principle is used, according to which the post of president is occupied by a Kurd, the prime minister is a Shiite, and the speaker of parliament is a Sunni.

Legislative functions in the provinces are carried out by directly elected councils. Governors are elected by councils and can be recalled by them at the initiative of the country's prime minister. They control local security forces and set budgets. However, their powers are limited, and funding also comes almost entirely from the center, although the law allows provinces to collect local taxes. Kurdistan has greater autonomy. It has an elected president and parliament, a constitution, its own taxes, representative offices abroad and even armed forces.

The principles of division of powers between the center and the subjects are enshrined in the constitution. The competence of the federation includes international relations, security, fiscal and customs policy, postal services, statistics, etc. The joint competence of the center and its constituent entities includes electricity, water supply, and healthcare. Areas not mentioned in the constitution are the responsibility of the provinces and regions. According to the constitution, oil belongs to the people; issues of its development should be dealt with jointly by central and regional authorities, and income should be evenly distributed between the subjects.

Republic of South Sudan

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 644.3 thousand square meters. km (41st), population - 11.9 million (75th), GDP - $13.3 billion (122nd)

Components: 32 states

South Sudan gained independence as a result of years of armed conflict with the central government in Khartoum. Adopted on the basis of the Declaration of Independence, the interim constitution proclaims South Sudan to be a “multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, multi-linguistic, multi-religious and multi-racial democratic decentralized state.” It was assumed that the constitution would be in force until 2015, after which a permanent law would be adopted. However, this never happened. In 2013, civil war began again in the youngest state on the planet.

According to the constitution, South Sudan is divided into 10 states. In 2015, President Salva Kiir, by decree, introduced a new administrative division of the country into 28 states. Despite opposition objections, South Sudan's parliament confirmed his authority to create new states and appoint their governors. In January 2017, the number of states was increased to 32.

The interim constitution established that during the transition period there would be a parliament consisting of two houses - the National Assembly (lower) and the Council of States (upper). The National Assembly included members of the current Legislative Assembly of South Sudan and all South Sudanese who were members of the Sudanese Parliament. The Council of States - southerners who represented the region in the upper house of the national Sudanese parliament, another 20 people were appointed by the president. South Sudan's president, elected in general elections before secession, has broad powers. He is both the head of state and government, has the power to declare and lift a state of emergency, initiate constitutional amendments, dismiss the state governor and dissolve the local legislature. New presidential and parliamentary elections were supposed to be held in the country back in 2015, but were then postponed to 2018.

The Interim Constitution enshrined the federal principles of decentralization and division of powers between levels of government. States declare to have their own constitutions, legislative and executive authorities. State boundaries can be changed if approved by a 2/3 vote of the Council of States (rather than by presidential decree). The constitution details the powers of different levels of government. The central government has 58 powers (including defense, foreign policy, citizenship issues, monetary regulation), and the states have 42 powers (social security, foreign and domestic loans, state property management, medical care, trade licenses). The shared responsibility category includes 34 functions (higher education and research, health policy, banking and insurance, river transport, disaster management). All local languages ​​are recognized as national languages ​​and are guaranteed protection, but only English has official status.

Union of Comoros

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 1.9 thousand square meters. km (174th), population - 806 thousand (161st), GDP - $648 million (199th)

Components: three islands

The islands of the Comoros archipelago Grande Comore, Anjouan, Moheli and Mayotte received centralized control only in the 19th century, together with the French colonial administration. In December 1974, during a referendum, residents of the three islands spoke in favor of independence, and in Mayotte - in favor of remaining part of France. Despite this, the Comorian constitution in the first article calls Mayotte part of the federation. At the same time, separatist sentiments are also strong on other islands. So, in August 1997, Anjouan and Moheli announced secession, but soon returned to the country. In 2008, it even took armed intervention to suppress the separatists in Anjouan.

The head of state and chairman of the government is the president, elected together with three vice-presidents for a five-year term. When electing a president, the principle of rotation of the islands he represents is provided. The country's parliament, the National Assembly, has 33 deputies. The legislative assemblies of the islands are represented by 3 people each, 24 are elected in single-member constituencies.

The political instability of the Union led not only to approximately 20 successful and unsuccessful attempts at military coups that the islands experienced, but also to 5 constitutional referendums that changed the basic law. In a referendum on May 17, 2009, changes were made to the constitution that significantly reduced the autonomy of the islands. The presidents of the islands were demoted to the status of governors, and individual constitutions of the subjects were reduced to charters, the approval of which required the opinion of the constitutional court. In addition, the amendments directly prohibit the islands from secession from the Union and proclaim the unconditional priority of national legislation over local legislation.

Before the amendments were adopted, the basic law determined only the exclusive competence of the central government, transferring all functions that did not affect national or inter-subjective interests to the local level. In the new edition, the document establishes an exhaustive list of powers of the regions, which include, in particular, road maintenance, education, regulation of agriculture, trade, etc.

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Form of government: parliamentary republic

Place in the world: area - 1.1 million sq. km (26th), population - 94.4 million (14th), GDP - $72 billion (67th)

Components: nine states and two cities

Ethiopia, the only state in Africa to escape European colonization, was for a long time an empire. It was replaced in 1974 by the socialist regime, which ceased to exist in 1991. The modern system was enshrined in the constitution, which came into force in 1995.

Ethiopia is an example of a federation organized along ethnonational lines. The Constitution gives all "nations, nationalities and peoples" the right to self-determination or secession. To do this, it is necessary to obtain a 2/3 majority in the local legislature and a simple majority in a referendum organized by the federal government. De facto, according to this procedure, Eritrea separated from Ethiopia in 1993. There were no other attempts to secede.

The federal parliament consists of two chambers - the Council of People's Representatives (lower) and the Federation Council (upper). The lower house is elected by a majoritarian system, with one representative from each ethnic group plus an additional representative from each million people of the total population of that group being delegated to the upper house. States determine the procedure for electing these representatives independently. The head of state is the president, elected from among the members of the lower house of parliament for a six-year term. The highest executive power belongs to the prime minister, who represents the party that wins the parliamentary elections.

States have their own executive and legislative branches of government. Regional governments are accountable to local parliaments. The capital Addis Ababa and the city of Dire Dawa have special self-governing status. Their heads are also elected by local parliaments, but are accountable to the federal government. The working language of the federal government is Amharic, but states can set their own official languages.

The Constitution contains a detailed list of powers of various levels of government. Thus, the sphere of competence of the federation includes the determination of the main parameters of social and economic development, the federal police, foreign policy, defense, foreign trade, and the declaration of a state of emergency. All powers not expressly federal or joint are exercised by the states. States can adopt their own constitutions, regulate the circulation of land, collect taxes and fees, and establish their own law enforcement forces.

Federal Republic of Nigeria

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 923.8 thousand square meters. km (31st), population - 195 million (7th), GDP - $405 billion (27th)

Components: 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory

A unified management system on the territory of modern Nigeria was created by the British colonial administration at the beginning of the 20th century. Regions that were historically, culturally, religiously and ethnically diverse found themselves within the framework of common borders. Federal principles of governance were reflected in the 1946 constitution, which divided the country into three regions (north, west and east) and gave each of them its own legislative body. At the same time, even during the colonial period, centrifugal tendencies developed, which, after Nigeria gained independence, led to an armed conflict in the east of the country, which lasted in 1967-1970. The current constitution was adopted in 1999 and marked the beginning of the “fourth republic” after many years of military rule.

By the time it gained independence in 1960, the country was divided into three regions. By 1996, their number reached 36, not counting the capital territory (created in 1976). The Constitution provides that the creation of a new state occurs on the basis of an act of parliament using a rather complex procedure. The initiative must be supported by two-thirds of the members of the legislative and executive bodies of the affected territories, approved in a referendum by two-thirds of their residents, approved by all other states and supported by a two-thirds vote in each of the chambers of the Nigerian Parliament. To change the boundaries of existing states, the referendum stage is excluded from the procedure.

The highest executive power is vested in the popularly elected president. Parliament consists of two chambers. The upper (Senate) includes three representatives from each state and one from the Federal Capital Territory. The lower one (House of Representatives) is elected by a majoritarian system. The status of the state language is not fixed in the constitution. It is stipulated that English, as well as the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba languages, can be used in the country's parliament. There is no state religion, but a number of states in the Muslim north have Sharia law.

Each state has its own legislature, the size of which depends on population. The state executive branch is headed by an elected governor.

The list of exclusive competence of the federal government includes 68 functions, including defense, internal security, foreign policy, trade, banking and finance, customs, weights and measures, prisons, and communications. The constitution includes 30 powers under the category of joint jurisdiction, including in the field of education, medical care, and statistics. All payments and taxes, with minor exceptions, go to the federal budget and from there are distributed among other levels of government. The amount of transfers from the federal budget is calculated using a formula that depends on a number of state indicators, including the number and density of population, area, and the amount of revenue generated on its territory.

Argentine Republic

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 2.78 million sq. km (8th), population - 44.6 million (31st), GDP - $546 billion (21st)

Components: 23 provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires

The constitution that laid the foundations for the country's structure was adopted in 1853 and was the result of many years of civil war that began after the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata declared independence from Spain. At that time, not only the Unitarian and Federalist parties opposed each other, but also individual provinces (Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and northern Chile separated from La Plata).

The constitution was adopted by an assembly in which the first 12 provinces were represented by 2 people each. He was ignored by the authorities of the most populous province of Buenos Aires, who wanted representation in proportion to the number of inhabitants (they would then have almost half the votes). In 1854, Buenos Aires declared its independence. However, during the war that soon began, he lost to the federation and in 1860 joined it. Subsequently, when undeveloped lands were annexed, new provinces were created. In 1880, the city of Buenos Aires was removed from the province of the same name to accommodate the federal government and was subordinated to it.

The head of the executive branch is the popularly elected president. Three representatives from each province and capital are directly elected to the upper house of parliament. The lower one consists of 257 deputies, elected in the subjects in proportion to the number of residents (from 5 to 70).

The Constitution emphasizes that the provinces, “without the intervention of federal authorities,” form their own government bodies. Each region has its own constitution, parliament, governor, Supreme Court and police. Since 1996, the mayor of Buenos Aires, previously appointed by the president, has also been elected. The center is responsible for matters of defense, foreign policy, national finance and the federal police. The Basic Law expressly prohibits regions from making laws on trade, internal and external navigation, creating customs houses, printing money, enacting their own Civil, Commercial, Criminal and Mining codes and citizenship laws, creating armies and waging war on each other. At the same time, the center does not have the right to independently redistribute tax revenues between subjects. Quite often in the history of the country, the center used its right to federal intervention in the affairs of states, removing their authorities to restore “constitutional order.”

Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 916.4 thousand square meters. km (32nd), population - 31.6 million (44th), GDP - $215 billion (47th)

Components: 23 states, capital district and federal possessions

The federal structure of the country was envisioned even when independence from Spain was declared. In fact, it was introduced only after the civil war of 1859-1863, when an assembly of representatives of the former provinces adopted the Constitution of the United States of Venezuela. The subsequent 14 constitutions formally preserved it, but the degree of federalism changed.

Regions were divided or enlarged many times, the total number of subjects increased and decreased ranging from 7 to the current 25. The current division as a whole was fixed in the constitution of 1909, which provided for the presence of 20 states and 3 federal territories. In the 1990s, the territories were elevated to state status. When creating a federation based on the American model, a federal (since 1999 called the capital) district was formed to house government bodies. Now it is just one of the districts of Greater Caracas. The federal dominions, created at the end of the 19th century, unite about 12 groups of sea islands with a population of about 1,600 people.

The head of state is a popularly elected president. Before Hugo Chavez's 1999 constitutional reform, the country had a bicameral parliament with a Senate representing the regions. Currently, the unicameral parliament is elected under a mixed system, with states represented in proportion to population. In 2017, at the height of the political crisis in the country, a Constitutional Assembly was elected, consisting of 100% supporters of President Nicolas Maduro. It deprived the opposition-controlled parliament of most of its powers.

State governments are formed in accordance with local constitutions on an elective basis. Until 2009, the capital also elected a mayor - now he is appointed by the president and at the same time manages the federal estates.

The 1999 Constitution actually confirmed the previously established centralized model of the state. It contains lists of subjects of jurisdiction of the federation (32 points) and states (11 points). It is emphasized that the competence of the center can include any issue that is “by its nature” national. In addition, the constitution gives the president the right to introduce a state of emergency in the regions. States, in particular, are free to determine the boundaries of municipalities, create local police forces and impose taxes. To ensure the unity of the country, they are prohibited from establishing customs duties and imposing bans on the consumption of “foreign” goods. The constitution enshrines the center's obligation to evenly transfer a certain portion of federal taxes to the regions.

Form of government: a constitutional monarchy

Place in the world: area - 9.98 million sq. km (2nd), population - 37 million (38th), GDP - $1.53 trillion (10th)

Components: ten provinces and three territories

The Canadian Federation was established on July 1, 1867 by the British North America Act. Initially it consisted of four colonies - Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The Canada Act passed by the British Parliament in 1982 severed most of the constitutional and legislative ties between the kingdom and its dominion.

A number of issues of federal relations, including the right to secede from the country, have still not been fully resolved. In 1980 and 1995, French-speaking Quebec twice held a referendum on sovereignty, but both times it failed to obtain the required number of votes. In 1998, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unilateral secession illegal and introduced mandatory coordination of sovereignty issues with the federal government and other provinces.

The nominal head of state is the British monarch, whose powers are delegated to the Governor General, appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada. In fact, all the functions of the governor-general are performed by the government: on his behalf, it convenes and dissolves parliament, makes appointments to senior government positions, and leads the army and federal police. The Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Governor-General, but in fact is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons. The country's parliament consists of the Senate (105 seats) and the House of Commons (308). Senators are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (there is a quota for each province), members of the House of Commons are elected according to a majoritarian system.

The highest official in the provinces de jure is the lieutenant governor, appointed by the governor general on the proposal of the prime minister. In fact, its functions, as at the federal level, are performed by the prime minister (head of government) of the province, who is the leader of the majority party in the local legislative body. All provinces have elected unicameral legislatures. Provinces do not have their own constitutions.

About 30 issues are within the exclusive federal competence: law enforcement and national defense, federal taxation, monetary circulation, shipping, postal service, national debt and state property, patents for inventions, copyright, marriage and divorce, etc. The provinces are responsible for organizing provincial civil and criminal courts, adoption of budgets, registration of local companies (except banks). Provinces also have the right to set their own taxes (on the use of natural resources, property, gambling, alcoholic beverages, etc.). The official languages ​​of the country are English and French.

Mexican United States

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 1.96 million sq. km (13th), population - 123.7 million (11th), GDP - $1.05 trillion (15th)

Components: 31 states and federal districts

After a ten-year war for independence, the country managed to remain an empire until the United Mexican States (UMS) was proclaimed in 1824. Then there was the period of the centralist republic (during which a number of states fought for independence, and Texas managed to win it), the loss of almost half of the lands in the war with the United States and the revolution. The result of the latter was the constitution of 1917, which consolidated the current structure.

It has been generally preserved. The most significant change was the granting of state status to the three federal territories in the 1950s-1970s. The procedure for creating new states is prescribed in the constitution. Territories applying for such status must have at least 120 thousand inhabitants, be economically independent and receive the approval of 2/3 of the members of the federal and regional parliaments. When creating the ISC on the American model, a federal district was conceived for the capital, which was chosen to be the historical center of the country, Mexico City. At the same time, the constitution allows that the federal authorities can choose “another place of residence”, then the district will be transformed into a state.

The executive branch is headed by a president, elected by a simple majority of the population. Legislative power is vested in a bicameral Congress. In the upper house (Senate), 96 deputies represent the constituent entities of the federation (3 from each, elected from parties), 32 are elected from national party lists. In the lower house, 300 people are elected from single-member constituencies, 200 from party lists. The system of separation of powers is duplicated in the constitutions of the constituent entities, each of which has a popularly elected governor (in the capital since 1997) and a unicameral parliament elected under a mixed system.

The powers of the subjects are residual from those determined by the federal constitution. These are, for example, education, issuing occupational permits, and civil registration. At the same time, the basic law imposes a number of prohibitions on state authorities: on international treaties, coinage, customs duties, etc. Governors are directly obliged to “enforce federal laws”; there is a mechanism for federal intervention. The Constitution proclaims the states to be free and sovereign, but in practice regional authorities had limited powers throughout the 20th century. The strength of the center was determined by the de facto one-party system (in the 1920s-1990s, the Institutional Revolutionary Party dominated at all levels) and the financial dependence of the regions. In recent years, a policy of new federalism has been pursued, which provides for the liberalization of financial relations and the obligation of the center to transfer a large share of national taxes to the regions.

USA

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 9.8 million sq. km (3rd), population - 326.6 million (3rd), GDP - $18.6 trillion (1st)

Components: 50 states and federal district

The creation of the American federation was preceded by the War of Independence of 1775-1783, as a result of which 13 British colonies formed a union state. In 1777, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, a document defining the United States as a confederacy. On September 17, 1787, the Philadelphia Convention (55 delegates from 13 then existing states) adopted the US Constitution, which established the federal structure of the country.

Since 1959, the country has included 50 states. The decision to accept a new territory is made by the US Congress. A prerequisite for this is that the territory has its own constitution. The union or division of states is possible only with the consent of the US Congress and the legislatures of the affected states. The right to secede from the federation is not provided. Washington also controls a number of associated territories (Guam, Puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, etc.).

The head of state is the president, elected by an electoral college (the number of electors from each state is equal to the number of its representatives in Congress). The highest legislative body is the bicameral Congress. The upper house (Senate) is formed by two representatives from each state. The lower one (House of Representatives) is elected by a majoritarian system. The most representative states are California (53 members) and Texas (36).

The highest official of the state is the governor, elected in general elections. Candidates for this office are nominated at political party conventions or through primaries. The removal of a governor from office occurs through impeachment. Legislative power belongs to bicameral legislatures. The lower houses are called houses of representatives, or assemblies (from 30 to 400 members in different states), the upper ones are called senates (17-65 members). The exercise of legislative power in the Federal District of Columbia, created to house federal bodies, belongs to the US Congress.

The Constitution established a clear list of subjects within the competence of the center. These include the issuance of banknotes, the formation of an army and navy, the collection of uniform taxes and fees, trade with foreign countries, the establishment of federal courts, etc. Everything else is the adoption of laws, including criminal ones, holding elections, regulating intrastate trade, establishing local taxes, the organization of health care and education, the establishment of a state judicial system, the creation of a national guard - falls within the competence of the states. The status of the official language in the United States is not legally established.

Federative Republic of Brazil

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 8.5 million sq. km (5th), population - 208.6 million (6th), GDP - $1.8 trillion (9th)

Components: 26 states and the federal (capital) district

After separating from Portugal, Brazil was an empire, and in 1889, as a result of a bloodless coup, it became a republic. The federal structure was proclaimed in the first republican constitution in 1891 and remained in the six subsequent ones. However, the degree of independence and influence of the regions changed. Thus, during the period of the Old Republic (1889-1930), the most populous states, Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais, had unlimited influence, and during the military rule of the 1960-1970s, elections of governors were abolished.

Initially, the country consisted of 20 states (former provinces), and the capital, as in colonial times, was located in Rio de Janeiro. The number of subjects has changed due to the annexation of new territories, division or merger of states. According to the constitution, changing borders is possible by holding a referendum in the affected territories and adopting a corresponding federal law. Thus, in 2011, referendums were held in the state of Para, which was planned to be divided into three parts. The initiative did not receive sufficient support. In addition, in 1960, the metropolitan area, which is a full federal subject, was moved to the new city of Brasília. The Constitution also provides for the possibility of creating centrally governed federal territories, but these currently do not exist.

The head of state is the popularly elected president. Legislative power is exercised by the National Congress. It consists of the Chamber of Deputies (513 legislators elected by a proportional system in each subject depending on their population, from 8 to 70) and the Federal Senate (81 deputies - 3 representatives elected by a majoritarian system from each subject). States have executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government, whose powers are enshrined in local constitutions. Heads of subjects are elected by direct vote, deputies of unicameral parliaments are elected from party lists.

The basic law quite clearly delineates the rights of the center and the subjects. States use only those powers that are not given to the center by the constitution, and local legislation must comply with federal legislation. In addition to the center’s traditional competencies in matters of foreign policy and trade, security and government finance, it is worth noting its exclusive right to energy, telecommunications, transport, minerals, citizenship issues and lotteries. The Center can intervene in the affairs of states to maintain national integrity and restore social and constitutional order in the event of financial insolvency of the subject. States have the right to impose only a limited number of taxes, but they are entitled to a mandatory share of a number of federal taxes. The police are divided into federal and civilian, subordinate to the governors.

Saint Christopher and Nevis

Form of government: a constitutional monarchy

Place in the world: area - 261 sq. km (192nd), population - 55 thousand (194th), GDP - $852 million (193rd)

Components: Islands of Saint Christopher (Saint Kitts) and Nevis

The country became independent through separation from Great Britain and the collapse of the previously unified colonial West Indies Federation. Note that, according to the country's constitution, the names St. Christopher and St. Kitts are equivalent.

The federation is structured in such a way that the greater demographic weight of St. Kitts (35 thousand inhabitants, or 70% of the total population) is balanced by the greater political independence of Nevis. In particular, only the latter has its own authorities and even the right to secede. This requires the approval of 2/3 of Nevis voters in a referendum. In 1998, such an attempt was made, but only 61.7% of voters were in favor of leaving the federation.

The highest federal legislative body is the National Assembly. However, it is also the legislative assembly of St. Kitts. Thus, while Nevis has the institution of local elections, voters in St. Kitts can only vote in general elections. St. Kitts has a parliamentary quota of eight deputies, and Nevis has three elected. In addition, the assembly includes three senators appointed by the governor general, who represents the formal head of state - the British monarch. Another seat in parliament is reserved for the country's prosecutor general. All executive power belongs to the prime minister, who is de jure appointed by the governor-general after receiving the support of a majority in parliament.

Only Nevis has its own competences in the system of division of powers. These include airports and seaports, mining, education, labor relations and even import and export regulation. The constitution stipulates that Nevis cannot exercise these powers if they affect the interests of the entire federation, without the consent of the prime minister. The only functions directly assigned to the federation are foreign policy and defense. All income, with some exceptions, goes into a national consolidated fund and is then distributed by parliament.

Australia and Oceania

Commonwealth of Australia

Form of government: a constitutional monarchy

Place in the world: area - 7.69 million sq. km (6th), population - 24.8 million (53rd), GDP - $1.2 trillion (14th)

Components: six states, three mainland and seven external territories

The creation of the federation ended with the adoption by the British Parliament of the Constitutional Act, which proclaimed the Commonwealth of Australia a single, federal, self-governing state, receiving the status of a dominion of Great Britain.

The union included six former colonies: Victoria, Western Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Tasmania, South Australia. In 1911, the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia, and the Australian Capital Territory (federal capital Canberra) was separated from New South Wales. All these entities have the independence of federal subjects and have their own constitutions. The country's parliament is authorized to admit new states into the union or create new ones, as well as change the boundaries of subjects with the consent of their residents.

The nominal head of state is the British monarch, whose powers are delegated to the Governor-General, appointed on behalf of the Australian government. Real power belongs to the bicameral parliament - it is its powers that are spelled out in the constitution as the powers of the federal center. The upper house is the Senate (76 seats). 12 senators are elected by residents from each of the 6 states, another 2 each from the Northern and Australian Capital Territories. The lower house is the House of Representatives (150 seats), whose members are elected by a majoritarian system. Executive power is exercised by the government headed by the Prime Minister. The latter is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the House of Representatives.

The monarch appoints state governors and territorial administrators. But in fact, the regions are governed by the heads of local governments, who represent the majority in the local legislative body. Local parliaments can be unicameral or bicameral and are elected by universal suffrage. The status of territories is similar to that of states, except that the federal parliament can override any decision of the territory's parliament.

The federal government is in charge of issues of defense, foreign policy and trade, finance, including taxes, pensions and other social security, employment, immigration, customs, issuing foreign passports, and control of television broadcasting. The powers of state and territory administrations are limited to the areas of health and education, road construction, law enforcement, budget development, forestry, vehicle registration, and fire protection.

Federated States of Micronesia

Form of government: presidential republic

Place in the world: area - 702 sq. km (181st), population - 105 thousand (183rd), GDP - $308 million (203rd)

Components: four states

The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is located on more than 600 islands, the largest groups of which are the states of Kosrae (formerly Kusai), Pohnpei (Ponape), Chuuk (Truk) and Yap. Since the middle of the 20th century they have been in free association with the United States. The federal structure is enshrined in the constitution adopted by referendum in 1978, drawn up according to the American model.

The parliament, the unicameral Congress, includes 14 deputies. One senator from each state is elected for four years, another ten for two years in single-member districts in proportion to the number of residents in each state. The most populous Chuuk has a quota of five deputies, Pohnpei has three, Yap and Kosrae each send one representative. The President and Vice President are elected by Congress from among senators with four-year terms and cannot represent the same state. Seats that become vacant are filled through new elections. States have their own legislatures. Governors are elected by the people of their states in general elections.

The current basic law recognizes traditional tribal leaders and customary law as part of the political system. Formal traditional government institutions are provided for in the constitutions of the states of Yap and Pohnpei (all four federal subjects have their own constitutions). The constitution includes 18 functions within the competence of the center, including national defense, foreign policy, customs duties, finance and banking, criminal law, immigration and citizenship issues, and regulation of mining. The powers of the states are not spelled out in the constitution; it includes everything that is not directly assigned to the federation and is not of a “national character.” There is also a category of powers of joint management, which, in particular, include education, health care and social security.

*The directory does not include the Federal Republic of Somalia, the Republic of Sudan and the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal. Somalia was formally declared a federation in 2012, but civil war continues in the country and the de facto government does not control a significant part of the country's territory. The Sudanese authorities have repeatedly stated the possibility of transforming into a unitary state after the secession of South Sudan in 2011. The country still has a transitional constitution in force; the development of a new permanent constitution is being delayed. Nepal was declared a federal republic after the abolition of the monarchy in 2008. The 2015 constitution divides the country into seven provinces. The boundaries and names of the new administrative-territorial units have not yet been determined.

“Federation” is translated from Latin as “union”, “union”. This is one of the forms of government in the country. In the article we will analyze in detail what is inherent in a federal state structure, compile a list of countries with such a system and find out whether Russia is a federal state.

In contact with

Federal state and its features

• states;
• cantons;
• land, etc.

Each education is endowed state sovereignty. It has its own system of legislative, executive and judicial bodies.

State entities that are part of the federation cannot have the characteristics of a state. That is, these entities cannot leave the union and are deprived of the right to participate in international relations.

The Federation is divided into species, which in turn are divided into types. The following types are distinguished according to the peculiarities of the constitutional and legal status of the subjects:

1. Symmetrical. In such countries, all subjects enjoy equal constitutional and legal status. America is an example of such a federation.
2. Asymmetrical. Regions enjoy different constitutional and legal status. An example is Brazil.

There are federations by formation features:

There are federations by mode of education:

1. Negotiable. They are formed on the basis of an agreement between states independent of each other. They will unite to jointly resolve common issues.
2. Constitutional. To a greater extent, constitutional federations are formed on the basis of unitary countries. The law of these countries spells out the main principle - the integrity of the territory and the prohibition of free secession from the country. Examples of such states are Russia, Brazil, and Germany.

Federations are distinguished according to the degree of centralization of power:

1. Centralized. Examples include: Russia, Germany, Argentina.
2. Decentralized. Example, Switzerland.

Signs

Distinctive features federal countries are:

List of countries

List federal countries of Asia:

• Pakistan.
• Malaysia.
• United Arab Emirates.
• India.
• Nepal.
• Myanmar.

List of African countries:

States North and South America:

• Mexico.
• Brazil.
• Saint Kitts and Nevis.
• Canada.
• Venezuela.
• Argentinean.

Federal states of Australia and Oceania:

• Federated States of Micronesia.
• Commonwealth of Australia.

List European countries:

• Kingdom of Belgium.
• Bosnia and Herzegovina.
• Germany.
• Austria.

What is the difference between federal and unitary states?

A unitary form of government is possessed by states in which the subjects are single administrative-territorial units and do not have their own sovereignty. A unitary state, unlike a federal one, has a single state power, legal system and constitution.

Main signs of a unitary state:

1. A constituent normative act that is uniform throughout the territory, its legislative force has the same force throughout the territory.
2. The highest authorities are the same for the entire territory.
3. The legislative system is the same for all territories.
4. Common citizenship.
5. General monetary system.
6. Subjects of the state do not have sovereignty.

Form of government in Russia

Experts have long debated whether Russia is a federal state. If we answer this question from a legal point of view, the answer will be yes.

It is said that Russia is a democratic federal state with a republican form of government. IN The Russian Federation includes 83 subjects who do not have the right to arbitrarily secede from the Russian Federation. Each subject has three branches of government - legislative, executive and judicial. Russian subjects have the right to issue regional laws that do not contradict federal legislation.

The system of power in the country is delineated not only horizontally, but also vertically. That is, the subjects of jurisdiction and powers of the authorities of the Russian Federation and the authorities of the constituent entities have been established. These points are enshrined in the Constitution.

Based on this, we can say that Russia is a federation, but not in the traditional form, like, for example, European countries.

Federation is a common form of government. Nowadays there are about 30 federal states in the world, most of them are large communities in terms of territory and population. These include politically and economically powerful states (USA, Canada, Germany, Australia), and states with high (Switzerland, Austria, Belgium) and average levels of industrial development (Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, Mexico, India, Pakistan) , and developing countries (Malaysia, Nigeria, United Arab Emirates, Comoros).

A federation, as mentioned above, is a form of government in which several state entities unite and create a new union state. The state entities that make up the federation (states, republics, lands, provinces, cantons, etc.) are its subjects that have a certain political and legal independence.

2.1 Modern federations and their subjects

Modern federations include a different number of subjects:

USA - 50, Australia - 6, Canada - 10, Austria - 9, Belgium - 3, Germany - 16, Switzerland - 23, Argentina - 22, Brazil - 26, Venezuela - 20, Mexico - 31, India - 25, Pakistan - 4, UAE - 7, Malaysia - 13, Nigeria - 21, Comoros - 3. The largest number of subjects is part of the Russian Federation. Modern federations are created according to various criteria. The most common are federations built on a territorial basis (USA, Germany, Austria, Mexico, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, etc.). In the past, there were federations based on national-territorial grounds (USSR, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia).

However, these federations fell apart without standing the test of time. Life has shown that in such federations the threat of national separatism remains.

Under certain circumstances, disintegration and separatist tendencies may prevail and lead to the collapse of a single federal state. This is exactly what happened with these federations, when the republics that were part of them, under the banner of self-determination of nations, separated and created sovereign states.

The Russian Federation is a mixed type federation. It includes entities that are national-state and national-territorial entities (republics, autonomous regions, autonomous districts), as well as administrative-territorial entities (territories, regions, cities of federal significance).

And yet, multinationality is an essential feature of Russia, and therefore the national factor is decisive in the federal structure of the state.

A federation is a state-legal association. It is consolidated in the form of a single state. Its constituent entities do not have the right to violate the territorial integrity of the federation or unilaterally withdraw from it, although in practice this took place. In a federal state, jurisdiction and powers are distributed between the federal center and the constituent entities of the federation. As a rule, such states have a bicameral parliament. One chamber (upper) expresses the interests of the subjects of the federation (states, provinces, lands, cantons, republics, etc.), the other (lower house) is a body of general federal representation. This is one of the fundamental differences between a federal state and a unitary one.

Federalism cannot be confused with decentralization and autonomous self-government. The state can be extremely centralized, but federal. And, conversely, a state can be built on broad autonomy of parts and at the same time be non-federal.

The subject of the federation, as a rule, is endowed with constituent power, that is, it is given the right to adopt its own constitution, which must correspond to the union constitution. It has the right to issue legislative acts that are valid only on the territory of this subject and comply with federal legislation (the principle of priority of federal legislation). The federal subject has its own legal and judicial system. However, the principles of organization and the limits of jurisdiction of judicial and other bodies are determined by the constitution of the federation.

Subjects of the federation have representation and participate in the work of the highest bodies of state power, primarily in parliament. In a bicameral parliament in many countries, an equal number of deputies from each federal subject are elected to the upper house, although there are exceptions. Thus, in Australia, the upper house (Senate) includes 76 people - 12 from each of the six states and two from the two territories, who are elected according to the system of proportional representation. The US Senate, the chamber representing the interests of the states, has 100 people - two from each of the 50 states, regardless of the state's population. The Council of Swiss Cantons has 46 deputies - two deputies from 22 cantons and one from half-cantons. Some of them are elected by local parliaments, some are appointed by cantonal governments. The Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation includes two representatives from each subject of the Federation, i.e., one each from the representative and executive bodies of state power.

5. Guarantees of constitutional rights and methods of their implementation

Topic 4. Constitutional and legal foundations of the social system in foreign countries

2. Economic relations

3. Social relations

4. Spiritual and cultural relations

5. Political relations

Topic 5. Political parties, party systems, non-political public associations in foreign countries

2. Institutionalization of political parties, their constitutional and legal status

3. Classification of political parties

3. Party systems

Topic 6. Forms of direct democracy. Elections, referendum, plebiscite. Suffrage and electoral systems in foreign countries

2. Principles of suffrage

3. Electoral process

4. Electoral systems

5. Referendum and plebiscite

Topic 7. Forms of government in foreign countries

Topic 8. Forms of state-territorial structure

2. Unitary state

3. Federal state

1. Legislative power in the system of separation of powers (the concept of parliament and parliamentarism, the transformation of parliamentarism in the 20th – 21st centuries).

2. Structure of Parliament

3. Dissolution of parliaments (chambers)

4. Internal organization of the work of parliament and its chambers

5. Powers of Parliament

6. Legislative process

7. Special parliamentary procedures

8. Status of parliamentarian

Topic 10. Executive power: head of state and government

2. Head of State

3. Government

1. Judicial power in the system of separation of powers.

2. Constitutional foundations of the judicial system in foreign countries

3. Constitutional principles of justice

4. Constitutional status of judges

5. Bodies of judicial self-government

6. Bodies assisting the judiciary

1. The concept of local government and self-government.

2. Local government and government systems

3. Competence of local government and self-government bodies

4. Relations between local government and self-government bodies and the central government

Fundamentals of US Constitutional Law

2. Fundamentals of the constitutional and legal status of individuals in the USA

3. Constitutional and legal regulation of public associations

4. US federal government agencies

1. The French Constitution of 1958 (preparation and adoption, structure, main features, features, constitutional control).

2. Fundamentals of the constitutional and legal status of the individual

3. Political parties and the party system in France

4. Basic principles for constructing the mechanism of state power in France

5. Parliament

6. President of France

7. French government

Fundamentals of UK Constitutional Law

2. Basics of the legal status of an individual

3. Political parties and other public associations in Great Britain

5. Features of the principle of separation of powers in Great Britain

6. UK Parliament

7. Head of State

8. UK Government

Topic 16. Fundamentals of German constitutional law

Section X contains regulation of measures in case of a state of defense.

2. Fundamentals of the constitutional status of the individual

3. Constitutional and legal regulation of the organization and activities of political parties

4. Federal legislative branch

1. Characteristics of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China (the procedure for development, adoption, structure, foundations of the constitutional system).

2. Constitutional basis of the legal status of Chinese citizens

3. Legal status of political parties and other public associations of the People's Republic of China

4. Suffrage and electoral system of the People's Republic of China

5. Supreme bodies of state power

Topic 18. Fundamentals of Japanese constitutional law

2. Constitutional and legal status of the individual

3. Political parties and the party system in Japan

4. Organizations of entrepreneurs. Social and professional associations

5. Suffrage. Referendum. Elections. Local initiative. Review

6. Government bodies

Fundamentals of Indian Constitutional Law

2. Constitutional and legal status of man and citizen

3. Constitutional foundations of the social system of India

4. Supreme Legislative Body of India

5. President of the Republic

6. Council of Ministers of India

Topic 20. Fundamentals of Spanish constitutional law

1. General characteristics of the Spanish Constitution

2. Basics of the political system

3. Features of the economic system and social foundations of Spain

4.Constitutional status of the individual

5.King of Spain

6.Legislative branch

7. Government of Spain

8. Judicial branch in Spain

Topic 21. Fundamentals of Italian Constitutional Law

2. Constitutional foundations of the legal status of man and citizen

3. Political parties and party system in Italy

4. Elections, referendum, suffrage, Italian electoral system

5. Legislative branch

6. President of the Republic

7. Government of Italy

8. Judicial branch

Topic 22 Characteristics of the Constitution of Mongolia

State structure.

Legal system. General characteristics.

Civil and related branches of law.

Topic 23 Czechoslovakia

Basic provisions

Constitutional laws 1950–1956

3. Federal state

The second main form of state-territorial structure is a federal state.

Federation is a complex union state consisting of states, state entities that have legal and certain political independence.

This form of state-territorial structure has the following characteristic features:

· the territory of a federal state does not represent a single whole in political and administrative relations. It consists of: the territories of the constituent entities of the federation; in a number of federations also from territories that do not have the status of subjects (in India, along with 26 states - subjects of the federation, there are 7 union territories that are not subjects);

· the states and state entities that make up the federation do not have state sovereignty, which should be understood as the property of state power to be independent both in the sphere of internal and external relations (only the Constitution of Switzerland (Article 3) establishes that “The Cantons are sovereign because their sovereignty is not limited by the Federal Constitution; they exercise all rights that are not transferred to the Union");

· with the exception of the 1994 Constitution of Ethiopia, all other constitutions of federal states do not recognize the right of secession for the subjects of the federation, that is, the right to secede from the federation;

· subjects of the federation, as a rule, are endowed with constituent power, that is, the right to adopt their own constitution. The vesting of constituent powers in the subjects of the federation is enshrined in federal constitutions, which also establish the principle of subordination, according to which the constitutions of the subjects of the federation must fully comply with the union constitutions. This principle is also observed in cases where in individual subjects of the federation the constitutions were adopted before joining the federation. These are, for example, the constitutions of the state of Massachusetts in 1780, the state of New Hampshire in 1783, adopted several years before the US Constitution. At the same time, the federal subjects in Canada and Venezuela do not have their own constitutions. In India, out of 26, only one state has a constitution;

· subjects of the federation are endowed, within the limits of competence established for them, with the right to publish laws. These acts are valid only on the territory of the constituent entities of the federation and must comply with federal legislation. The principle of priority of federal legislation is universal for all federations. The corresponding norms are established in federal constitutions. For example, Article 31 of the German Constitution stipulates: “Federal law prevails over the law of the lands”;

· a federal subject may have its own legal and judicial system. The constitutions of the federation and its subjects determine the order of organization, procedure and limits of jurisdiction of the judicial bodies of the subject of the federation;

· a formal feature of the federation is the presence of dual citizenship. That is, every citizen of a subject of the federation is at the same time a citizen of the federation. The dual citizenship system is enshrined in the constitutions of most federal states. At the same time, the constitutions of the Malaysian Federation and India recognize only federal citizenship. Most state scientists consider granting subjects of the federation the right of their own citizenship to be a kind of symbol, since this institution in practice, as a rule, does not give rise to any consequences;

· a sign of the federal structure of the state is bicameralism, that is, the bicameral structure of the federal parliament. The exception to this rule is the unicameral parliaments of Venezuela and Tanzania. If the lower house of parliament is a body of federal representation and is elected in territorial electoral districts, then the upper house represents the interests of the subjects of the federation. There are two principles for the representation of federal subjects in the upper house:

· equal representation;

· unequal representation.

With equal representation, each subject, regardless of population size, sends the same number of deputies to the upper house.

So, in the Senate of the US Congress there are two senators from each state.

The principle of equal representation leads in practice to predominant influence in the upper house of sparsely populated federal subjects. According to unequal representation, federal constitutions establish the representation of a federal subject depending on the size of its population. The German Constitution established that states with a population of less than 2 million people have 3 votes in the Bundesrat, states with more than 2 million people are given 4 votes, and over 6 million have 5 votes. In India, the rate of state representation in the Council of States ranges from 1 to 34. Based on the method of formation, the upper houses of federal parliaments are divided into elected (Senates of Australia, Mexico) and appointed (Bundesrat of Germany, Senate of Canada);

· a distinctive feature of the federation is that its subjects usually have their own state symbols: coat of arms, flag, anthem, capital;

· it is characteristic of all federations that in order to change its composition and the boundaries of its subjects, the will of both the federation and its subjects is necessary.

Types of federal states

Most federations in the world are based on a purely territorial principle (these are Australia, Austria, Brazil, Germany, the USA).

In a number of federations, its subjects are formed taking into account the national composition of the population, i.e. ethnic, religious, linguistic factors.

Thus, in Canada there are 9 English-speaking provinces and one - Quebec - French-speaking. Based on the language factor, 3 federal subjects were formed in Belgium.

Individual federations (India, Malaysia) are built on both territorial and national-territorial principles.

Modern federations with a certain degree of convention are divided into contractual and constitutional. The first include the UAE and Tanzania, which were formed from independent sovereign states. The subjects of such federations have a higher constitutional status than the subjects of constitutional federations, for example, states in Mexico.

In constitutional federations (India, Canada), the subjects usually do not have constitutions; when changing boundaries, the opinion of the federating subjects, although taken into account, is of an advisory nature.

Federal states, depending on their structure, are divided into: symmetrical and asymmetrical.

Symmetrical federations consist only of federal subjects of the same order (Austria, Germany, Switzerland).

Asymmetric federations consist either of subjects of different orders (Bosnia and Herzegovina), or, along with the subjects of the federation, they include non-subjects: union territories in India, freely affiliated states in the USA (Puerto Rico).

In the federal form of a state-territorial state, the most difficult problem is legal and actual delimitation of competence between the federation and its subjects.

First of all, this relates to the principles of determining the scope of the substantive competence of the federation and its subjects and their representative bodies.

Establishing the principles of delimitation of competence is of enormous importance due to the fact that the constitutional status of the subject of the federation, as well as the nature of the relationship between the federation and its subjects, depends on it.

In the constitutional legislation of foreign federations, issues of competence are fixed in several ways. And depending on the methods of constitutional regulation of issues of competence, all federal states can be divided into several groups.

Brazil, Tanzania, Australia, the USA, whose constitutions enshrine issues within the exclusive competence of the federation. All other issues, the so-called residual competence, are the competence of the subjects of the federation. A number of federations, for example, the USA, supplement this scheme with the so-called principle of “implied powers”, meaning that all newly emerging subjects of legal regulation fall only within the competence of the federation. In such federations, only in the process of applying the constitution did a sphere of joint competence gradually emerge, which found a legal basis in the interpretation of the constitution by the bodies of constitutional control.

In Argentina, Canada and other federations, constitutions establish two areas of competence: 1) federations; 2) its subjects. The constitutions of some federations (Canada) refer powers not named in them to the powers of the federation, while other federations (Germany) refer them to the jurisdiction of the subjects of the federation.

Federations such as India and Malaysia establish a three-tier system of delimitation of powers in their constitutions.

The first group consists of issues within the competence of the federation.

The second group is issues of joint competence of the federation and its subjects.

The third group is a list of subjects of jurisdiction of the subjects of the federation.

Moreover, if the head of state issues an act on the introduction of a state of emergency on the territory of a subject of the federation, these powers are transferred to the federation, whose parliament has the right to pass laws on any issues within the competence of the subject.

The fourth method of delimiting subjects of competence is called the “Austrian model”. It provides several options for their distribution.

The first contains a list of subjects of legislative and executive activity, which are the exclusive competence of the federation.

The second is that legislation on issues such as citizenship, housing, etc. falls under the jurisdiction of the federation, and executive activities fall under the jurisdiction of the subjects of the federation.

The third option is for the federation to establish general principles in such areas as labor law, land relations, and the subjects of the federation issue specific laws and carry out executive activities.

The fourth option of the “Austrian model” is the establishment of the exclusive competence of the subjects of the federation.

In the considered model of delimitation of subjects of competence, the listed options are involved in a complex.

Federal control and federal enforcement

Federal constitutions and federal laws, which have supremacy over the acts of the constituent entities of the federation, encourage the federal government to exercise federal control over compliance with the federal constitution and federal laws by the constituent entities of the federation. It is carried out by constitutional and other courts, parliament and the executive branch.

At the same time, in most federations there are also emergency means of federal control, which are called federal coercion.

These include:

a) introduction of a state of emergency on the territory of the constituent entities of the federation;

b) presidential rule in the constituent entities;

c) federal administration;

d) the institution of federal intervention;

e) suspension of the subject’s own governance;

f) reserving the laws of the subject of the federation at the discretion of the head of state;

g) federal legislative replacement.

The constitutions of some federations, for example, Austria, do not provide for the possibility and measures of federal coercion, but even in these federations, the head of state, with the consent of the parliament of the federation, can dissolve the legislative body of the subject of the federation.

Legislative branch: parliament in foreign countries

A federation is a voluntary unification of several previously independent state entities into one union state.

A federal state (from the late Latin foederatio - “union, association”) is a form of state or national-territorial structure in which the members of the federation that are part of the state - lands, states, cantons, provinces, republics, emirates, etc. - have their own jurisdictions , including legislative competence, as well as legislative, executive and judicial bodies. The constituent parts of the federation are called subjects of the federation and have their own administrative-territorial structure, their own constitutions (states in the USA, lands in Germany, republics in the Russian Federation) or basic laws that are not called constitutions (for example, charters of regions, territories and autonomies in the Russian Federation) . Such acts establish the system of government bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation, their powers, etc. The federal constitution and federal laws, as well as general federal by-laws, federal government bodies, and federal courts are in force throughout the Federation. Unlike autonomous entities, the subjects of the Federation adopt their own constitutions.

The federal government structure is heterogeneous. In different countries it has its own unique characteristics, which are determined by the historical conditions of the formation of a particular federation and, above all, by the national composition of the country's population, the uniqueness of the life and culture of the peoples included in the union state.

Federal states arose in different ways. Some of them were formed based on the merger previously independent states that became members (subjects) of the federation (USA in 1787 as a result of the unification of states, Tanzania as a result of the unification of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964, United Arab Emirates in 1971). The USSR was formed in the same way on December 31, 1922. Elements of the unification process took place in Malaysia. Many federations, however, were created through the adoption of constitutions or special laws (India, Pakistan, etc.), others combined one or another method (Russia).

There are a number of signs by which a federation can be distinguished from other forms of government:

· There are two levels of government: federal, union and republican (state, canton, land level). At the highest level, the federal character of the state is expressed in the creation of a bicameral union parliament, one of the chambers of which reflects the interests of the subjects of the federation (the upper one). When forming it, the principle of equal representation is used, regardless of population size. Another chamber is formed to express the interests of the entire population of the state, all its regions. In a federation, there may also be a state apparatus at the local level;

· having dual citizenship. Every citizen is considered a citizen of the federation and a citizen of the corresponding state entity, and this is enshrined in the constitutions of states;

· there is a legal system built on the principle of centralization and unity. But the subjects of the federation can create their own legal system. Most often, although not always, they are given the right to adopt their own constitution, but at the same time the principle of subordination (hierarchy of laws) is established, where the federal constitution and federal laws are in the top position;

· the highest legislative, executive and judicial power belongs to general federal bodies - the federal president, government, parliament, courts;

· a subject of the federation has the right to have its own judicial system. The Constitution determines the order of organization, procedures and subject matter of the activities of judicial and other law enforcement agencies, establishing a module for building the judicial system in the subjects of the federation;

· a two-channel tax system is used: federal and federal subject taxes. As a rule, collected taxes go to the general treasury and are then distributed among the subjects;

· the presence of unified armed forces, police, security services, customs, subordinate to the central apparatus.

The main issue of any federation is the delimitation of competence between the union and the constituent entities of the federation. The practice of federal states shows that the issue of powers of the federation and local authorities is resolved on the basis of three principles:

The principle of the exclusive competence of the federation, i.e. definition of subjects of reference.

The principle of shared competence, i.e. establishment of the same list of subjects of jurisdiction of both the federation and the subjects.

The principle of three spheres of powers presupposes the establishment of federal powers.

In modern legal theory, it is customary to distinguish several types of federal states: those based on a national-territorial basis, and other (territorial and national) federations; federations symmetrical and asymmetrical; contractual and constitutive (constitutional).

Territorial federation.

The territorial federation is based on the principle of dividing the country along territorial lines. This is done for the sake of ease of management, as a rule, in very large countries (USA, Mexico, Brazil). Also, federations are divided on a territorial basis, because the number of their subjects does not correspond to the number of national groups. “In the USA there are no compactly living nationalities, but there are 50 states, in Switzerland there are four language groups (French, German, Italian, Romansh languages ​​are used) and more than 20 cantons, Germans live in Germany (there is a compactly living Slavic minority - Serbs), but 16 lands (federal subjects) were created." Latin American federations were built on a territorial principle (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela), Australia, and many federations in new states that arose on the site of former colonies (Indonesia, Libya, Kenya, the federation of Egypt and Syria, etc.). Basically, the territorial principle underlies the federation in Malaysia and Pakistan.

National Federation.

In national federations, subjects are created on the basis of dividing the living population by nationality. The thesis of creating federations only on national grounds was an unconditional requirement of the Marxist-Leninist theory on state issues. Thus, federations were built in the USSR and the RSFSR, in Yugoslavia (Union of Serbia and Montenegro), this approach was used in 1968 in Czechoslovakia. Federation in countries of totalitarian socialism was considered only as a means of solving the national question, uniting a disintegrated multinational country, overcoming national contradictions and establishing their cooperation. National federations are the most complex formations. They have all the features of a federation, but in addition to them there are many features. A number of features can be identified in this type of federation:

1) The subjects of such a federation are national states and national-state formations, which differ from each other in the national composition of the population, culture, way of life, traditions and customs, religion and beliefs.

2) This kind of federation is built on the principle of voluntary association of its constituent entities.

3) The highest state bodies of the national federation are formed from representatives of the constituent entities of the federation, that is, the central government is created to solve the problems of each nation and nationality living on the territory of the federation.

4) The National Federation ensures the state sovereignty of large and small nations, in other words, their freedom and independent development.

5) A special feature of a national federation is the legal status of its subjects. In such federations, the fundamental principle is “the right of nations to self-determination.” That is, the right of a national subject to secede from the federation at its own discretion if it no longer wishes to be in an alliance with other subjects of the federation. Moreover, the consent of the subjects of the federation for this, as a rule, is not required.

Among other things, on the modern political map of the world one can also find so-called mixed federations. They represent a special type of federation - national-territorial federations , the formation of subjects of which is based on both national and territorial principles. Examples of national-territorial federations are: Russian Federation (32 subjects, which were created on the basis of the nationality living in it, including those that do not have a majority in the subject, 57 subjects are territorial entities where mainly the Russian population lives); Federal Republic of Germany (consists of 16 territorial subjects of states, the population of which in the past was related to German nationalities). Such a principle of state organization undoubtedly justifies itself in federations with vast territories and a heterogeneous population.

Symmetrical federation

Ideally, for a legally symmetrical federation, all its constituent parts are identical and have equal rights. Such a federation consists only of federal subjects having the same legal status. Only subjects are parts of the federation in Germany (states), UAE (emirates), Argentina (provinces), Russia (different names of subjects are used). However, there are no absolutely symmetrical federations, because some elements of differences between subjects exist. In Germany, the states have an unequal number of votes in the upper house of parliament - the Bundesrat (from three to six votes, regardless of the number of representatives of the state); in the unicameral deliberative National Assembly of the UAE, the emirates have from 8 to 4 representatives; in Russia, some subjects have their own constitutions and are called in the federal Constitution by states, others not, etc. At the moment, only in Austria, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina, the structure of the federations, in terms of the legal status of its constituent parts, is close to the ideal of a symmetrical federation.

Asymmetric Federation

An asymmetric federation consists of various parts that are not identical in their legal status (subjects and non-subjects), and the status of the subjects, in turn, may not be the same. In the USA, in addition to the states (subjects), there are small territories (possessions) - the Virgin Islands, Eastern Samoa, the Federal District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, which do not enjoy state rights (their population, in particular, does not participate in US parliamentary elections). India has six "union territories" whose status is lower than that of states: states have local parliaments and governments, and territories are governed by federal authorities. A similar situation exists in Australia and some other countries.

As already noted, the status of the subjects themselves may be different. "In India, some states (the state of Jammu and Kashmir) have broader rights compared to other states (for the first state many exceptions have been made from the constitution, parliamentary laws relating to Sikkim require coordination with it), the rights of small states (Methalaya, Nagaland ) are curtailed, although they may, with the permission of the governor, waive federal law on certain issues governed by tribal customs." In Malaysia, the heads of four of the 13 states do not participate in the election of the head of state. In Russia, as noted, the federation consists of only constituent entities. Although the Constitution says that they are all equal, under the same Constitution their legal status is not exactly the same. Republics are considered states, have their own constitution, and can have their own citizenship and state language. The other five types of entities (regions, territories, federal cities, autonomous regions and autonomous okrugs) do not have such rights.

Non-traditional federations

Along with the above-mentioned federations, there are also treaty, constituent and constitutive federations. Treaty federations are created as a result of the free association of a number of states and state entities enshrined in a treaty (USA, USSR). Constituent federations arise as a result of the transformation of unitary states and treaty federations; they themselves create their own subjects within their composition, endowing them with part of the sovereignty (Russian Federation). Constitutive or constitutional federations are created from above, through the adoption of a constitution (Pakistan federal reform in 1973), amendments to it (Belgium in 1993) or an act of parliament (Indian federation reform in 1956).

At the same time, we can highlight the most common features that are characteristic of most federal states:

1) The territory of the federation consists of the territories of its individual subjects: states, states, lands, republics, etc.

2) In a union state, the supreme executive, legislative and judicial powers belong to federal government bodies.

3) Subjects of the federation have the right to adopt their own constitution, have their own supreme executive, legislative and judicial bodies.

4) In most federations there is union citizenship and citizenship of federal units.

5) Under a federal government, there is a chamber in parliament that represents the interests of members of the federation.

6) The main national foreign policy activities in federations are carried out by the union federal bodies. They officially represent the federation in interstate relations (USA, Brazil, India, Germany, etc.).

Any federal system can be effective only when its activities are carried out within the strict framework of the constitution and current legislation, when the spheres of activity and competence of central and local government bodies are clearly delineated, when the rights and freedoms of citizens are strictly observed. It is also important to proceed from the fact that federalism is not a one-dimensional, but a multidimensional phenomenon, that it has not only a static, but also a dynamic character. When we talk about the multidimensionality of federalism, we mean the existence of different, more or less equally significant sides or aspects: historical, political, cultural, ideological, etc. Federalism, regardless of the country in which it is established - in the USA, Germany, Russia, Canada - does not exist on its own or for itself as an end in itself, but acquires meaning only in serving society and the individual.

Federalism has at least five main goals. Among them:

· reconciliation of unity and diversity;

· protection from tyranny by the central government;

· creating conditions for public participation in political processes at several levels of government;

· creating conditions for increasing production efficiency through regional competition and acting as a form or path to stimulate innovative ideas in regional governments.

The main goal is to comprehensively ensure the process of free development of various nationalities and nationalities, the principle of pluralism and democracy, and guarantee the rights and freedoms of citizens.

Thus, in a federal state there are supreme bodies of state power and administration, both for the state as a whole and for its subjects. The type of state and the balance of class forces have the most serious influence on federal forms of organization of power.